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MILITARY  PREPAREDNESS 

AND 

THE  ENGINEER 


BY 

ERNEST  F.  ROBINSON,  Assoc.  M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E. 

Captain,   Corps   of  Engineers,  N.  G.  N.  Y. 


FIRST  EDITION,  FIRST  THOUSAND 


.  ILLUSTRATED  ' 


NEW    YORK 
1916 


COPYRIGHT,  1916 

BY  CLARK  BOOK  Co.,  INC. 

NEW  YORK 


CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  I.  Introductory. 

CHAPTER  II.         How  to  Obtain  a  Military  Training. 
The  Army. 
College  Training. 
Home  Study. 
Training  Camps. 

CHAPTER  III.       The  National  Guard. 
History. 

The  National  Guard  of  Today. 
Defects  of  the  National  Guard. 
Engineers  of  the  National  Guard. 
CHAPTER  IV.        Military  Organization. 
Army  Organization. 

The  Staff. 

The  Line. 

Tactical  Organization. 
CHAPTER  V.          Military  Administration. 
Money  Accountability. 
Property  Accountability. 
Supply. 

Company  Books  and  Records. 
Correspondence. 

CHAPTER  VI.        Engineer  Troops  in  the  Field. 
Duties. 

Scope  of  Services. 
Organization. 
Equipment. 
Detailed  Duties. 

On  the  March. 

The  Advance. 

The  Retreat. 

The  Attack. 

The  Defense. 

Sieges. 

In  Camp. 


331693 


viii 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  VII.       Fire  Action. 

Rifle  Instruction. 
Outdoor  Firing. 
Effect  of  Small  Arms  Fire. 
Artillery  Fire. 
CHAPTER  VIII.     Meld  Fortifications. 

Location  of  Field  Works. 
Trace  of  Field  Works. 
Construction  of  Field  Works. 

Parapet. 

Revetments. 

Traverses. 

Firing  Trenches. 

Head  Cover. 

Overhead  Cover. 

Cover  Trenches. 

Communicating  Trenches. 

Machine  Gun  Emplacements. 

Gun  Cover. 
Concealment  of  Field  Works. 

Disguising. 

Dummy  Trenches. 

Concealment  from  Aerial  Observers. 
CHAPTER  IX.       Obstacles. 

Barrier  Obstacles. 
Destroying  Obstacles. 
Flares  and  Alarm  Signals. 
Land  Mines. 

CHAPTER  X.         Siege  Works. 
Sapping. 
Mining. 
CHAPTER  XI.       Demolitions. 

High  Explosives. 

Combustibles  and  Detonants. 

How  Smokeless  Powder  is  Made. 

Picric  Acid. 

T.  N.  T. 

How  to  Stop  the  War. 


CONTENTS  ix 

Chemical  Preparedness. 
Applications 

Military  Explosives. 
Firing  Charges. 
Demolitions  by  Explosives. 

CHAPTER  XII.      Military  Bridges. 
Loads. 

Knots  and  Lashings. 
Improvised  Bridges. 
Pile  Bridges. 
Spar  Bridges. 
Floating  Bridges. 
CHAPTER  XIII.     Topographical  Sketching. 

How  Differing  from  Surveying  Methods. 
Instruments  Used. 
Methods. 
The  Plane  Table. 
The  Sketching  Case. 
The  Prismatic  Compass. 
The  Engineer  Note  Book. 
Contouring. 
Visibility. 
Map  Reproduction. 
Landscape  Sketching. 
CHAPTER  XIV.     Needs  of  the  Engineers  in  War. 

Need  of  Officers  and  Non- Commissioned 

Officers. 

National  Guardsmen  as  Officers  of  Vol- 
unteers. 
CHAPTER  XV.       Conclusion. 

APPENDIX  I.         List  of  Reading  on  Military   Subjects  for 

Civilian  Engineers. 
APPENDIX  II.       List   of   Engineer    Property   Carried   by   a 

Company  of  Engineers  in  the  Field. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Battery  of  Two  6-inch  Coast  Defense  Rifles-,  Mounted 

Upon  Disappearing  Carriages Frontispiece 

Fac-siinile  form  I.     Ration   Return    43,  44 

"     II.     Morning    Report     46,47 

"       "  "  III.     Military  Communication    51 

Figure  1.     Bar  for  Instruction  in  the  Use  of  Sights....  65 

2.  The  Hollafield   Rod    68 

3.  Target    Nomenclature    69 

4.  Wind    Nomenclature    70 

5.  Correction   Scales    72 

6.  Cone  of  Dispersion  73 

7.  Fire   from   High   Ground    to    Low   and    vice 

versa    74 

8.  Danger    Space    75 

9.  Defilade 75 

10.  Burst  of  Shrapnel 79 

11.  Trenches     at     Military     and     Topographical 

Crests 82 

12.  Trenches   at    Foot  of    Slope,    Military    Crest 

and  in  Rear  of  Crest   83 

13.  Squad   Trench    85 

14.  Company    Trench    86 

15.  Flank  of  a  Trench 86 

16.  Typical    Parapet    87 

17.  Protection  from  Enfilade 90 

18.  Digging  in  under   Fire 90 

19.  Bullet-Proof    Parapet    91 

xi 


xii  LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 
Figure  20.     Standing  Trench    92 

21.  Standing  Trench  with  Passage 92 

22.  Firing  Trench  without  Parapet 93 

23.  Recessed   Firing  Trench 94 

24.  Types  of   Loopholes 95 

25.  Loopholes  Corrected  for  Wide  Angle  of  Fire.  96 

26.  Individual    Overhead    Cover 96 

27.  Parapet    Shelter    97 

28.  Firing  Trench  with  Overhead  Cover 98 

29.  Cover  Trench    99 

30.  Machine  Gun  Emplacement  100 

31.  Machine  Gun  Emplacement  for  Cross-Fire.  .101 

32.  Obstacles    107 

33.  Wire   Entanglement    109 

34.  Land  Mine  and  Fougasse Ill 

35.  Land   Mines    112 

36.  Approach   by   Sapping 116 

37.  A    Sap 117 

38.  A    Mine    118 

39.  Mine   Timbering      119 

40.  A   Countermine    120 

41.  Placing  Charge  in  Spar  Bridge 135 

42.  The  Explosion    136 

43.  Bridge  Destroyed    136 

44.  Knots    139 

45.  Knots    141 

46.  Knots    143 

47.  Knots     145 

48.  Knots    147 

49.  Lashings    149 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  xiii 

PAGE 

Figure  50.     Ground  Tackle   151 

51.  Floating  Pile-driver    153 

52.  Trestle  for  Spar  Bridge 154 

53.  Erection  of  Spar  Bridge 155 

54.  Single  Lock  Bridge,  Trestles  Locked 156 

55.  Double  Lock  and  Single  Sling  Bridges 157 

56.  Double  Lock  Bridge  Completed 158 

57.  Lashed  Spar  Trestles    160 

58.  Loaded  Ponton  Carriage,   Reserve  Train 162 

59.  Birago  Trestle   164 

60.  Barrel  Raft  for  Floating  Bridge 166 

61.  Timber  Raft  for  Floating  Bridge 167 

62.  Floating  Bridge  by   Successive  Bays 168 

63.  Floating  Bridge  by   Parts 170 

64.  Floating  Bridge  by  Rafts 171 

65.  Draw  in  Floating  Bridge   173 

66.  Construction  of  Bridge,  Light  Equipage 174 

67.  Construction  of  Bridge,  Reserve  Equipage . .  174 

68.  Reconnaissance  Instruments    181 

69.  Engineer  Note-Book   186 

70.  Engineer  Note-Book   187 

71.  Map  Distances   188 

72.  Topographical  Symbols   189 

73.  Topographical  Symbols   190 

74.  Road    Sketch    191 

75.  Landscape  Sketch   197 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 

The  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  place  before  the  En- 
gineers of  America  as  accurate  an  idea  as  possible  of 
the  opportunities  and  limitations  that  will  confront  the 
Civilian  Engineer  in  the  event  of  war,  to  show  him  what 
he  can  do  to  assist  in  preparedness  against  invasion  and 
how  he  must  go  about  the  matter. 

Modern  War  is  largely  an  engineering  problem,  and 
for  its  successful  conduct  there  must  be  at  the  service 
of  the  country  from  the  first  a  very  large  number  of 
engineers  with  more  than  an  indefinite  notion  that  they 
are  willing  to  fight,  and  die  if  need  be,  for  their  coun- 
try. Many,  many  more  will  fight  and  fewer  by  far  will 
die,  if  the  engineering  profession  at  large  can  readily 
obtain  a  proper  conception  of  the  duties,  the  responsi- 
bilities, and  the  active  functions  of  the  individual  en- 
gineer, in  a  few  weeks  immediately  following  his  call  to 
the  colors. 

For  this  reason  the  Author  addressed  several  large 
meetings  of  Engineers  belonging  to  the  American 
Society  of  Civil  Engineers,  the  Harvard  Engineering 
Society  of  New  York,  etc.,  and  what  he  was  able  to  pre- 
sent on  the  platform  and  the  screen  was  so  enthusias- 
tically received  that  he  was  very  ready  to  acquiesce  in 
the  invitation  of  the  Publishers  to  give  the  material  to 
the  profession  at  large  by  broad  publication. 

The  material  of  the  lectures  has  been  carefully  re- 
vised and  very  materially  enlarged.  The  book,  how- 
ever, is  not  a  service  manual,  of  which  several,  admir- 
ably prepared  by  the  War  Department,  are  available. 
It  attempts  only  to  fulfill  the  purpose  originally  indi- 
cated. If  this  attempt  be  successful,  the  Author's  obli- 
gations and  his  hopes  will  have  been  more  than  met. 

A  large  part  of  the  technical  matter  is  based  upon  the 


xvi  AUTHORS   PREFACE 

Engineer  Field  Manual,  U.  S.  Army,  and  a  number  of 
cuts  have  also  been  reproduced  from  the  same  source. 
Chapter  VI,  ' '  Engineer  Troops  in  the  Field, ' '  is  taken 
almost  entirely  from  an  article  in  the  Official  Bulletin, 
General  Staff,  Vol.  1,  No.  4,  Dec.,  1914.  The  matter  was 
so  important,  as  giving  specifically  and  in  detail  the 
duties  of  the  Engineers  under  all  conditions,  that  near- 
ly half  the  original  article  is  here  reproduced. 

The  matter  in  Chapter  V,  on  rifle  instruction,  illus- 
trates the  methods  devised  and  used  by  the  Author  in 
his  own  company. 

Acknowledgment  is  made  to  Prof.  Whitaker,  of  the 
Department  of  Engineering  Chemistry,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, for  permission  to  reprint  his  excellent  article 
on  "High  Explosives." 

New  York.  February  28, 1916. 


I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

The  writer  is  in  no  sense  an  alarmist.  He  does  not 
believe  that  the  cause  of  preparedness  can  be  effec- 
tively served  nor  any  permanent  good  achieved  by  a 
hysterical  exposition  of  our  defenseless  condition, 
coupled  with  frenzied  calls  for  immediate  action. 
Indeed,  such  action,  committing  us  by  hasty  and  ill- 
advised  legislation,  might  easily  work  irreparable 
harm. 

The  invasion  of  America,  even  by  a  nation  as 
powerful  as  any  of  those  taking  part  in  the  present 
conflict,  is  a  task  of  such  magnitude  as  to  be  under- 
taken only  upon  due  deliberation  and  for  the  gravest 
of  causes.  However,  the  modern  world  moves  upon 
trade,  and  in  reaching  out  for  commercial  supremacy 
the  United  States  may  conflict  with  the  interests  of 
another  state  to  such  an  extent  as  to  overweigh  the 
magnitude  of  the  undertaking  and  cast  the  die  in 
favor  of  war. 

From  whence  our  next  war  will  come,  therefore, 
it  is  not  given  any  of  us  to  know.  In  like  manner 
none  may  say  that  we  will  not  have  another  war.  But 
this  much  seems  evident,  though  preparedness  is  ad- 
visable, there  is  yet  time  for  preparedness  of  the  right 
sort,  based  upon  a  due  appreciation  of  the  needs 
before  us  and  of  the  resources  at  hand. 

It  would  be  an  insult  to  the  intelligence  of  the 
engineers  of  the  country  to  attempt  to  prove  what  is 
well  known,  that  we  are  not  sufficiently  prepared 
for  any  war  which  might  overtake  us.  It  is  there- 
fore a  waste  of  time  to  dwell  upon  our  shortage  of 


lJ  ,     •   *   ;••  PBEP'AJIEBNKSS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

equipment  and  ammunition  or  the  tactical  dispro- 
portion of  the  various  arms  of  the  service. 

This  discussion  shall  deal,  therefore,  with  a  very 
small  part  of  the  general  subject  of  preparedness — 
the  part  of  the  engineer  as  an  individual.  It  is  not 
proposed  to  recommend  legislation,  to  outline  a  re- 
serve system  or  to  insist  upon  military  training  in  the 
schools.  On  the  contrary,  it  will  be  assumed  that 
Congress  has  done  nothing,  that  the  Army  has  not 
been  increased,  and  that,  as  good  engineers  must  often 
do,  we  shall  be  forced  to  make  the  most  effective  use 
of  the  material  at  hand. 

Engineers,  and  the  public  in  general,  have  become 
thoroughly  awake  on  the  subject  of  preparedness,  but, 
contrary  to  the  general  public,  the  awakening  of  en- 
gineers means  that  something  will  be  accomplished.  A 
number  of  associations  have  passed  resolutions  in  favor 
of  preparedness;  others,  as  for  instance  the  Western 
Society  of  Engineers,  have  asked  Federal  aid  in  in- 
structing their  members  for  military  duty;  the  great 
national  societies  have  a  joint  committee  working  upon 
a  project  for  a  technical  reserve  of  their  members,  to  be 
called  into  service  in  time  of  war ;  and,  finally,  the  en- 
gineers of  New  York  City  have  arranged  a  course  of  in- 
struction, consisting  of  seven  lectures  delivered  by 
engineer  officers  of  the  Army. 

All  of  this  indicates  an  awakening  to  our  national 
needs  which  is  very  gratifying  after  the  public  indiffer- 
ence which  it  replaces,  but  it  must  be  admitted  as  the 
honest  opinion  of  the  writer  that,  in  its  present  form, 
it  is  extremely  improbable  that  all  this  agitation  for 
preparedness  of  engineers  will  add  a  single  capable 
soldier  to  our  forces,  or  reduce  in  the  slightest  degree 
the  confusion  which  would  rule  the  country  when  war 
became  imminent. 

Effective  preparedness  lies  in  the  individual,  not  in 
the  association,  and  if  each  engineer  sees  to  it  that  he 


INTRODUCTORY  3 

personally  is  fully  prepared  to  take  his  place  as  an 
officer  or  non-commissioned  officer  of  engineer  troops, 
then  may  we  be  said  to  have  accomplished  a  great  step 
towards  preparedness.  The  next  war  will  be  one  of 
engineers,  and  upon  the  efficient  leadership  of  our 
engineer  troops  will  depend  in  large  measure  our  ulti- 
mate success. 

The  work  of  the  Engineers  is  divided  into  two  great 
classes,  that  in  the  Zone  of  the  Advance  at  the  front, 
and  that  in  the  Zone  of  the  Line  of  Communications. 
In  the  latter  the  works  are  of  a  more  deliberate  and 
permanent  character,  directly  akin  to  civil  works. 
Skilled  civilian  labor  would  be  largely  used,  and  civil- 
ian Engineers  could  be  taken  directly  from  their  daily 
duties  to  supervise  the  construction  of  highways,  rail- 
ways, bridges,  and  the  more  deliberate  defensive  works 
for  their  protection.  In  this  work  the  civil  engineer 
can  find  a  large  sphere  of  usefulness,  the  duties  differ- 
ing little  from  those  of  his  ordinary  practice,  except 
that  they  are  directed  by  officers  towards  military  ends. 
These  men  would  not  necessarily  be  commissioned,  in 
fact,  many  of  those  best  qualified  would  be  beyond  the 
age  for  commissions  in  the  grades  corresponding  to  the 
work  which  they  would  do.  Let  it  be  understood, 
therefore,  that  the  writer  considers  such  service  of  the 
highest  importance,  and  that  a  Technical  Reserve  of 
members  of  the  profession  at  large,  immediately  avail- 
able for  work  of  this  character  upon  the  outbreak  of 
hostilities  would  be  of  great  value  to  the  country.  In 
the  discussion  which  follows,  therefore,  the  former 
class  of  engineering  work  only  will  be  considered,  that 
of  the  Zone  of  the  Advance,  where  conditions  are 
totally  different. 

There  is  work  in  plenty  of  both  kinds  to  be  done,  and 
one  may  render  equally  good  service  in  either  class. 
However,  if  all  choose  to  work  in  the  rear,  the  troops  at 
the  front  will  be  seriously  handicapped.  Service  along 


4  PREPAREDNESS   AND  THE   ENGINEER 

the  Line  of  Communications  falls  naturally  to  men  of 
long  experience  and  ripe  judgment.  That  at  the  front 
requires  men  with  physical  endurance,  initiative  and 
enthusiasm,  qualities  ordinarily  possessed  in  good 
measure  by  the  younger  generation  of  engineers.  It  is 
to  these  men,  therefore,  that  we  must  look  for  engineer 
officers  in  our  next  war.  The  average  engineer  faces 
much  preparation  before  he  is  qualified  to  render 
effective  service  of  this  character. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  science  of  Engineer- 
ing had  its  beginning  when  the  Missing  Link  first 
used  a  stone  to  crack  a  cocoanut.  This  is  probably  an 
error  in  so  far  that  the  stone  was  used  to  crack,  not  the 
cocoanut,  but  his  neighbor's  skull,  since  it  is  a  pretty 
well  established  fact  that  the  first  engineers  were  mili- 
tary engineers.  As  time  went  on  and  civilization  de- 
veloped, engineers  were  in  time  of  peace  used  upon 
public  works,  and  it  is  only  in  modern  times  that  the 
profession  of  engineering  has  become  a  distinct  calling. 
The  latter  is  now  so  diversified  in  all  its  branches  that 
one  adopting  engineering  as  a  profession  must  be  a 
specialist.  It  is  beyond  the  capacity  of  any  man  to  be 
qualified  in  all  the  subjects  that  are  grouped  under  the 
term  engineering. 

A  locating  engineer  could  not  be  expected  to  take 
charge  of  the  electrification  of  his  own  railway,  and  a 
bridge  erector  would  hardly  make  a  success  as  master 
mechanic  of  the  same  road ;  yet  each  is  an  engineer,  and 
a  railroad  engineer  at  that.  Similarly,  a  successful 
highway  engineer  would  not  be  chosen  to  design  a  great 
bridge,  nor  would  an  irrigation  engineer  step  into  a 
position  in  charge  of  a  shield  tunneling  job,  and  yet 
each  of  these  positions  calls  for  a  civil  engineer. 

The  military  engineer  makes  use  of  all  branches  of 
engineering  science  but  often  in  a  different  way  and 
with  an  entirely  different  view  point  than  his  civilian 
confrere.  His  work  is  destructive  as  often  as  construe- 


INTRODUCTORY  5 

tive,  his  materials  are  scarce  and  of  the  crudest,  and 
often  utterly  unfitted  for  his  purpose.  Plant  is  almost 
unknown,  labor  is  plentiful  but  often  inefficient,  time  is 
all-important  and  there  is  constant  and  serious  inter- 
ference by  the  enemy  with  each  step  taken.  Every- 
thing must  be  done  with  a  military  purpose  and  from 
the  view  point  of  the  military  man  and  until  the  en- 
gineer acquires  this  point  of  view  he  cannot  make  a  suc- 
cess in  the  field. 

It  must  also  be  remembered  that  the  military  en- 
gineer is  a  soldier  before  he  is  an  engineer.  He  com- 
mands troops  who  must  be  prepared  to  fight  as  infan- 
try to  protect  themselves  or  their  work.  He  must  there- 
fore be  versed  in  the  drill  regulations  and  the  tactical 
considerations  governing  the  use  of  that  arm  of  the 
service.  He  must  administer  the  affairs  of  his  com- 
mand and  look  after  its  training,  housing,  transporta- 
tion and  sanitation.  He  must  understand  thoroughly 
the  plain  business  of  "soldiering"  with  its  many  de- 
tails before  he  begins  to  think  of  using  his  men  as 
engineers. 

An  officer  in  the  field  cannot  act  in  a  mere  consulting 
capacity  upon  purely  technical  matters.  He  must  be 
prepared  to  put  his  shoulder  to  the  wheel  and  take  his 
share  of  the  enormous  amount  of  routine  and  other 
necessary  but  uninteresting  work  with  which  the  time 
of  the  military  man  is  filled.  Nor  is  there  a  place  at  the 
front  for  a  specialist.  The  engineer  officer  must  be 
qualified  to  conduct  a  reconnaissance,  locate  trenches, 
supervise  their  construction  and  the  placing  of  ob- 
stacles, direct  siege  operations,  drive  a  mine  or  sap, 
build  roads,  railroads  or  bridges,  or  use  explosives,  en- 
tirely upon  his  own  responsibility. 

Let  us  consider  for  a  moment  that  a  number  of  prac- 
tical engineers  have  been  commissioned  in  a  volunteer 
reserve  and  that,  war  having  been  declared,  one  of 
them  receives  an  order  to  this  effect : 


PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE   ENGINEER 

"  1.  Captain  A.  is  detailed  for  duty  and  assigned  to 
the  command  of  Company  H,  Second  Engineers,  U.  S. 
Volunteers,  mobilized  and  stationed  at  Camp  Wilson, 
N.  J. 

2.  Captain  A.  will  make  immediate  requisition  for 
arms,  equipment  and  engineer  property  and  for  trans- 
portation to  Portville  for  embarkation  with  expedi- 
tionary forces." 

Query :  What  does  he  requisition,  of  whom  is  it  re- 
quisitioned, and  how  much  transportation  does  he  re- 
quest to  move  his  company  at  war  strength  and  fully 
equipped  ? 

Again,  suppose  him  arrived  in  camp,  his  officers  and 
men,  volunteers  like  himself,  just  reported.  The  First 
Sergeant  says,  "Captain,  the  cooks  have  nothing  to 
cook.  No  rations  have  been  sent  over  by  the  commis- 
sary. ' '  The  Captain  hurries  to  his  organization  supply 
officer  and  complains  of  this  manifest  attempt  to  starve 
his  mjen.  He  is  told,  "Issue  call  was  sounded  at  ten  A. 
M.  and  your  Quartermaster  Sergeant  was  not  present. 
Furthermore,  we  have  received  no  ration  return  from 
you  nor  a  morning  report  of  your  strength. " 

Query :  What  is  a  ration  return  or  a  morning  report, 
how  do  you  make  them  out,  and  to  whom  do  you  send 
them? 

And  again,  at  the  front,  the  brigade  commander 
sends  an  urgent  call  to  division  headquarters  for  an 
engineer  officer  to  assist  in  preparing  a  position  for 
defense.  Captain  A.  is  favorably  known  to  chief  en- 
gineer of  the  division  as  a  capable  engineer  and  one 
who  has  studied  diligently  since  being  commissioned,  so 
he  is  sent. 

Knowing  from  his  field  manual  that  a  good  defensive 
position  should  afford  a  clear  field  of  fire  to  the  front, 
that  it  should  provide  concealment  and  good  communi- 
cations to  the  rear,  with  its  flanks  resting  upon  impas- 
sable objects,  Captain  A.  selects  a  position  forward  of 


INTRODUCTORY  7 

the  crest  of  a  slope,  lays  out  complete  trenches  with 
overhead  cover,  sods  them  over,  places  entanglements 
at  the  foot  of  the  slope,  and  carries  the  line  from  the 
river  bluff  on  the  left  to  contact  with  the  lines  of  an- 
other brigade  on  the  right.  The  attack  is  then  awaited 
in  confidence. 

But  when  the  men  have  dug  themselves  in,  a  swell  in 
the  ground  completely  blocks  off  from  view  the  foot  of 
the  slope  and  considerable  space  in  front  and  rear,  and 
the  entanglements,  so  plainly  visible  to  Captain  A.  on 
his  horse,  are  in  the  middle  of  a  dead  zone,  to  which  the 
enemy  advance  by  rushes,  line  after  line,  and  destroy 
the  entanglements  at  their  leisure.  Spurred  on  by 
their  officers  the  men  leave  their  elaborate  trenches, 
advance  to  where  the  enemy  is  visible  and  open  fire 
from  a  prone  position,  only  to  be  driven  back  by 
shrapnel  from  the  enemy's  artillery,  firing  over  the 
heads  of  his  own  troops.  They  are  followed  up  the  hill 
by  masses  of  the  enemy's  infantry,  who  rush  the  trench 
before  it  can  be  reoccupied,  drive  the  defenders  back 
in  headlong  flight,  turn  the  flanks  of  the  adjacent  brig- 
ade, and  the  day  is  lost. 

These  few  instances  are  not  exaggerations.  Those 
who  served  in  the  Spanish  "War  can  multiply  occur- 
rences of  the  first  two  kinds  and  m<any  an  officer  of 
more  experience  than  Captain  A.  has  been  guilty  of 
the  same  neglect,  of  locating  trenches  without  placing 
his  eye  at  the  level  of  the  men  who  will  occupy  them. 

In  recent  articles  of  the  technical  press  it  has  been 
urged  that  practical  engineers,  contractors'  men,  con- 
struction foremen,  etc.,  were  as  well  or  better  qualified 
to  perform  certain  classes  of  work  than  regular  en- 
gineer troops  and  could  be  used  for  this  work  without 
further  training.  This  is  admitted,  but  can  they  out- 
side their  special  lines  perform  all  the  duties  that  fall 
to  the  engineers,  including  fighting,  as  well  as  troops 
possessing  a  more  general  training?  These  men  have 


8  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE   ENGINEER 

made  the  United  States  famous  wherever  engineering 
work  is  done  and  their  knowledge  and  experience  will 
be  a  tower  of  strength  to  the  army.  But  consider  how 
much  more  effective  they  would  be  if  each  were  trained 
as  a  soldier  as  well  as  an  engineer;  if  he  possessed  a 
familiarity  with  the  different  technical  duties  of  the 
military  engineer  in  addition  to  his  own  specialized 
knowledge. 

Let  us  imagine  that  all  members  of  the  engineering 
profession  who  are  of  military  age  and  physically  fit 
have  studied  and  attended  instruction  camps,  lectures, 
etc.,  until  they  are  really  fitted  to  command  engineer 
troops.  Does  this  knowledge  on  their  part  tend  to  les- 
sen the  confusion  and  complications  incident  to  their 
recruiting,  mobilization,  mustering  into  service,  com- 
missioning and  assignment,  taking  command  and  weld- 
ing their  organizations  into  efficient  units?  Yet  this 
must  be  done  before  they  can  become  efficient  officers. 
If  they  simply  enlist  and  serve  in  the  ranks  their  train- 
ing and  talents  are  in  a  measure  lost  by  not  being  fully 
developed,  and  we  still  have  the  work  of  bringing  them 
into  the  service. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  a  mere  expression  of  will- 
ingness to  serve  is  not  sufficient  unless  backed  by  indi- 
vidual service  and  preparation  along  the  lines  of  mili- 
tary as  well  as  engineering  efficiency. 

Congress  is  contemplating  measures  of  prepared- 
ness. There  are  many  who  await  the  result  before  de- 
ciding what  they,  individually,  will  do.  Opinions  dif- 
fer, and  the  legislative  battle  will  be  a  long  one.  Any 
measures  adopted  will  take  months  to  carry  out,  and  re- 
sults are  at  any  ra<te  uncertain.  In  the  meantime  we 
have  the  National  Guard,  which  is  a  going  concern,  and 
which  is  working  to  the  same  end.  That  the  National 
Guard  has  its  faults  is  admitted,  but  so  has  the  Army ; 
that  those  of  the  National  Guard  are  the  more  serious 
cannot  be  denied,  but  it  must  be  conceded  that  the  re- 


INTRODUCTORY  9 

suit  in  each  case  is  due  to  conscientious  effort,  and  is 
probably  the  best  that  can  be  done  under  the  circum- 
stances. However,  the  faults  of  the  National  Guard 
are  due  not  so  much  to  inside  as  to  outside  causes,  not 
the  least  of  which  is  the  attitude  of  the  general  public 
towards  the  Guard.  We  cannot  have  full  companies  if 
public  sentiment  does  not  favor  enlistment,  we  cannot 
have  full  attendance  at  maneuver  and  instruction 
camps  if  employers  will  not  let  their  men  off,  and  we 
cannot  have  efficient  organizations  if  the  men  who  can 
make  them  so  refuse  to  enlist. 

But  in  spite  of  all  its  faults  the  National  Guard  can 
be  made  a  powerful  factor  in  our  defence.  These  men 
are  organized,  they  ore  under  arms,  they  are  equipped 
exactly  like  the  Army,  and  receive  instruction  of  the 
same  character  out  of  the  same  text-books.  The  Guard 
today,  faulty  as  it  is,  still  forms  the  most  practicable, 
and  in  fact  the  only  practicable  method  we  have  of 
promptly  reinforcing  the  Regular  Army  in  time  of 
war. 

So  therefore  if  the  engineer  intends  to  join  the  Con- 
tinental Army  or  an  Officers'  Reserve  he  may,  instead 
of  marking  time  until  all  the  legislation  and  plans  are 
perfected,  improve  his  time  by  qualifying  for  the  posi- 
tion which  he  may  desire  to  hold.  The  proposed  law 
authorizing  these  forces  contemplates  drawing  largely 
upon  the  National  Guard  for  officers,  and  one  can  cer- 
tainly lose  nothing  by  advance  preparation. 


II. 

HOW  TO  OBTAIN  A  MILITARY  TRAINING. 

Considerable  space  has  been  devoted  to  showing  that 
the  civilian  engineer  who  wishes  to  become  a  potential 
military  engineer  must  first  obtain  a  military  training. 
It  is  therefore  essential  that  there  should  be  outlined 
some  practical  manner  in  which  this  training  may  be 
obtained. 

There  are  a  number  of  methods  which  have  been  sug- 
gested, each  of  which  has  its  advocates,  and  each  of 
which  has  its  good  and  bad  points.  Those  which  have 
been  recently  urged  are :  the  Army,  college  training, 
home  study,  instruction  camps,  and  the  National 
Guard. 

The  Army.  Compulsory  training  in  the  Army  is 
objectionable  to  the  people  because  of  its  cost,  because 
many  men  would  be  withdrawn  yearly  from  produc- 
tive pursuits,  and  because  of  the  fear  of  all  that  sug- 
gests a  military  form  of  government.  Universal  serv- 
ice may  be  the  eventual  solution  of  the  problem  of 
preparedness,  but  it  must  come  gradually,  and  prob- 
ably by  way  of  compulsory  militia  training.  The 
American  people  are  not  yet  ready  for  it.  Even  if 
such  legislation  could  be  secured,  it  would  be  a  long 
time  before  we  could  reap  its  first  benefits.  It  does 
not,  therefore,  lie  within  the  scope  of  this  discussion, 
which  aims  simply  to  point  out  the  manner  of  utiliz- 
ing most  effectively  the  facilities  we  now  have. 

For  the  engineer  to  drop  his  business  interests  and 
serve  in  the  Army  as  now  constituted,  in  order  to  ob- 
tain the  military  training  necessary  to  qualify  himself 
for  a  volunteer  commission  is  not  advisable.  The  sol- 
dier who  does  his  full  duty,  and  learns  thoroughly  all 

10 


HOW    TO   OBTAIN   A   MILITARY   TRAINING  11 

the  details  pertaining  to  his  position,  does  not  qualify 
himself  to  become  an  officer.  Even  those  men  who 
graduate  from  the  ranks  into  a  commission  must  pur- 
sue a  course  of  study  entirely  outside  their  ordinary 
duties  as  soldiers.  An  engineer  who  enlists  in  the 
Army,  therefore,  expecting  after  a  term  of  service  to 
enter  an  officers'  reserve,  will  find  himself  confronted 
by  examination  questions  upon  matters  of  which  he 
heard  nothing  as  a  soldier,  no  matter  how  conscien- 
tiously he  applied  himself. 

The  duties  of  a  soldier  are  one  thing,  those  of  an  offi- 
cer are  another,  and  the  difference  is  great.  They  do 
not  merge,  and  proficiency  in  the  lower  grade  is  no 
guarantee  of  qualification  for  the  higher. 

College  Training  affords  a  splendid  opportunity  if 
properly  conducted.  Nearly  all  the  large  engineering 
schools  offer  facilities  for  military  training,  and  in  the 
Land  Grant  Colleges,  i.  e.,  those  which  received  grants 
of  public  lands  for  the  maintenance  of  their  Agricul- 
tural Schools,  military  training  is  compulsory.  Most 
schools  of  this  character,  where  the  students  drill  a 
certain  number  of  periods  each  week,  and  the  work  is 
supervised  by  an  officer  of  the  army  detailed  for  that 
purpose,  are  rated  as  Class  "B"  by  the  War  Depart- 
ment. The  students  are  under  no  military  control  out- 
side the  drill  hour,  and  the  instruction  is  about  on  a 
par  with  the  infantry  drill  of  the  better  National  Guard 
organizations. 

From  six  years  military  experience  in  a  typical  uni- 
versity of  this  character,  and  from  considerable  in- 
formation gained  by  conversations  with  students  of 
similar  institutions  the  writer  can  advisedly  say  that 
he  does  not  believe  that  the  instruction,  as  now  carried 
out,  offers  the  proper  training  to  qualify  young  men 
for  field  service  as  officers  of  engineers. 

The  drill  comprises  infantry  tactics  and  close  order 
formations.  There  is  very  little  rifle  practice,  and  no 


12  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE   ENGINEER 

real  instruction  in  the  principles  of  musketry.  In  win- 
ter, when  the  weather  prevents  outdoor  drill,  there  is 
indoor  instruction,  mostly  in  the  Infantry  Drill  Regu- 
lations. A  few  advanced  students  may  receive  lessons 
in  Minor  Tactics  and  the  Art  of  War,  but  these  are 
limited  to  the  cadet  officers,  who  have  elected  to  serve 
for  a  longer  period  than  the  university  regulations 
require.  The  percentage  of  the  total  force  which  re- 
ceives other  than  elementary  infantry  instruction  is 
therefore  very  small.  Finally,  field  service  is  entirely 
lacking  in  every  case  of  which  the  writer  has  received 
information. 

There  are  a  number  of  military  institutions  in  the 
United  States  which  are  rated  as  Class  "A"  by  the 
War  Department,  and  in  which  the  military  instruc- 
tion is  of  the  highest  order,  ranking  second  only  to  the 
Military  Academy  itself.  However,  these  schools  are 
mostly  in  the  preparatory  class,  and  are  famous  prin- 
cipally on  account  of  their  military  character.  None 
of  them  is  numbered  among  our  leading  technical 
institutions.  Even  at  West  Point  the  engineering  in- 
struction is  very  limited  in  its  scope,  and  officers  grad- 
uating into  the  Engineers  must  take  a  post-graduate 
course  in  engineering  at  the  Engineer  School  of 
Washington  Barracks,  D.  C. 

It  seems  evident,  therefore,  that  if  our  engineers  are 
to  receive  an  adequate  military  education  along  with 
their  engineering  course,  the  scheme  of  military  in- 
struction must  be  considerably  modified,  probably 
along  the  following  lines : 

1.  Its  scope  must  be  extended,  and  military  in- 
struction required  throughout  the  undergraduate 
course.  As  much  attention  should  be  paid  to  work  in 
the  class-room  as  to  that  on  the  drill  ground,  and  a 
regular  curriculum  should  be  followed,  embracing 
supply,  organization,  administration,  minor  tactics, 


HOW  TO  OBTAIN  A  MILITARY  TRAINING  13 

field  service  regulations,  field  engineering,  and  military 
history. 

2.  Less  time  miust  be  allowed  for  infantry  drill,  and 
the  portion  which  is  so  occupied  must  be  devoted  part- 
ly to  extended  order  drills,  not  on  the  level  campus, 
but  on  terrain  approximating  field  conditions. 

3.  The  drills,  outside  of  infantry  tactics,  should 
include  military  topography  and  sketching,  in  which 
the  engineer  is  usually  wofully  deficient,  rifle  practice, 
and  the  underlying  principles  of  rifle  instruction. 

4.  Finally,  the  student  should  be  required  to  attend 
one  of  the  college  men's  instruction  camps  held  by  the 
War  Department.   Students  from  the  technical  schools 
could  be  accommodated  in  engineer  camps,  directed 
by  engineer  officers  of  the  Army  and  assisted  by  engi- 
neer troops,  similar  to  the  instruction  camps  of  the 
militia  engineers.    Such  field  service  would  be  produc- 
tive of  a  much  higher  efficiency  than  local  encamp- 
ments, managed  entirely  by  the  university  authorities. 

A  man  completing  such  a  course  should  be  fully 
qualified  to  lead  engineer  troops  in  the  field,  but  the 
mere  fact  of  his  having  taken  the  instruction  is  not 
conclusive  evidence  of  his  qualification.  Many  men 
walk  through  a  technical  course,  receiving  a  diploma  at 
the  end,  without  being  in  the  least  qualified  to  practice 
engineering.  It  is  right  and  proper,  therefore,  that 
the  War  Department  should  require  a  qualifying  test 
before  admitting  a  graduate  under  the  system  to  an 
officers'  reserve. 

Nor  does  the  responsibility  of  the  War  Department 
cease  here.  All  this  training  is  in  a  fair  way  to  be  lost 
to  the  country  if  the  proper  office  does  not  keep  in 
touch  with  the  graduate,  send  him  orders  and  litera- 
ture pertaining  to  his  branch  of  the  service,  and  encour- 
age him  to  attend  further  instruction  camps  or  to  join 
the  National  Guard  and  pass  his  training  on  to  others. 
Above  all,  there  should  be  required  of  him,  not  only  his 


14  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

changes  of  address,  but  a  periodical  report,  upon  a 
printed  form,  which  will  insure  complete  information 
at  all  times  as  to  his  health,  whereabouts  and  any  other 
data  which  would  affect  his  availability  for  prompt 
service.  In  turn,  the  reservist  must  be  notified  of  the 
cadre,  or  skeleton  organization  to  which  he  is  assigned, 
and  the  locality  where  he  is  to  report  upon  notification. 

Furthermore,  in  order  to  prevent  deterioration,  and 
to  insure  his  keeping  up  with  military  progress  and 
developments,  he  should  be  required  to  report  at  cer- 
tain intervals  to  be  examined  for  a  higher  grade.  Upon 
failure  to  pass  this  examination,  his  connection  with 
the  reserve  should  cease.  Judging  from  the  busy  life 
of  the  average  engineer  several  years  out  of  college, 
how  many  would  remain  on  the  reserve  list  under  these 
conditions  until  they  reached,  say,  the  grade  of  cap- 
tain? And  yet  these  conditions,  severe  as  they  seem, 
are  absolutely  essential  if  wre  desire  an  officers'  re- 
serve, which  shall  be  capable  of  rendering  prompt  and 
effective  service  when  called  upon. 

This,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  is  the  fatal  defect 
in  the  system  of  college  training.  It  is  a  simple  manner 
to  train  these  men.  There  is  a  precedent  for  each  step 
outlined,  and  it  can  all  be  accomplished  without 
further  legislation.  The  Government  requires  military 
training  in  return  for  Federal  aid  to  the  agricultural 
schools,  then  let  it  specify  the  character  of  this  train- 
ing. The  War  Department  has  established  college 
men's  camps  of  instruction,  then  let  them  arrange  to 
accommodate  the  technical  men  in  an  engineering 
camp.  The  Division  of  Militia  Affairs  of  the  General 
Staff,  under  the  provisions  of  Sec.  23  of  an  Act  of  Con- 
gress of  January  21,  1903,  has  examined  applicants  for 
volunteer  commissions  and  placed  those  who  passed 
upon  a  reserve  list,  then  let  it  keep  in  touch  with 
these  men. 

Unless  this  matter  is  thoroughly  carried  out,  the 


HOW  TO  OBTAIN  A  MILITARY  TRAINING  1.5 

whole  system  fails.  We  train  the  men,  lose  track  of 
them,  and  never  know  who  or  how  many  can  be  counted 
upon  in  an  emergency.  Furthermore,  a  scheme  of 
skeleton  units  is  a  prime  requisite,  if  we  would  avoid 
the  confusion  of  organization  after  the  beginning  of 
hostilities. 

Yet,  with  all  this  accomplished,  the  training,  the 
close  contact,  and  the  organization,  ready  for  imme- 
diate response  to  a  mobilization  order,  the  whole  struc- 
ture still  rests  upon  the  self-discipline  and  sense  of 
responsibility  of  the  individual  engineer,  who,  busy 
with  making  a  living  and  a  career  for  himself,  must 
study  privately,  keep  up  with  military  progress,  for 
the  military  art  makes  long  strides  even  in  times  of 
peace,  and  prepare  for  promotion  examinations,  merely 
upon  the  chance  that,  sometime,  his  services  may  be 
required. 

Moreover,  while  an  improved  system  of  college  train- 
ing may  be  of  great  benefit  in  preparing  future  gener- 
ations of  engineers  for  volunteer  commissions,  it  is  not 
available  for  those  who  have  already  completed  their 
college  courses  and  are  now  engaged  in  active  practice. 
Many  of  these  are  anxious  to  serve  and,  properly 
trained,  could  render  very  effective  service. 

Home  Study,  amplified  by  lectures,  is  the  favorite 
plan  of  many  engineers  in  this  country.  The  causes 
of  this  preference  are  easily  seen : 

1.  There  is  no  compulsion  to  take  instruction  except 
as  desired  and  as  perfectly  convenient  to  the  indi- 
vidual. 

2 .  There  is  no  supervision  over  his  work  and  no  test 
to  pass,  so  he  is  not  bothered  with  monotonous  details, 
and  can  study  only  what  interests  him. 

3.  There  are  no  responsibilities,  no  formations  to 
attend,  no  duties  to  perform,  and  no  restraint  upon 
his  liberty. 

These  very  reasons  are  sufficient  to  condemn  the 


16  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE  ENGINEER 

method  so  far  as  any  practical  benefit  is  concerned.  A 
man  will  study  only  when  it  pleases  him  to  do  so  and 
then  only  that  which  interests  him,  and  even  a  course  of 
reading  would  find  few  to  follow  it  conscientiously  to 
the  end.  There  are,  furthermore,  many  things  con- 
nected with  military  service  that  cannot  be  learned 
by  study  alone,  as  will  be  seen  later. 

And  how  are  such  men  to  be  made  available  for  ser- 
vice ?  They  apply  for  commissions  upon  the  outbreak 
of  hostilities,  and  find  that  they  have  no  standing  with 
the  War  Department.  They  cannot  submit  a  record 
of  any  connection  with  a  reputable  military  organiza- 
tion, nor  even  a  certificate  from  an  examining  board. 
To  examine  and  classify  them  at  this  late  hour  would 
be  impracticable,  and  the  War  Department  would 
hesitate  long  before  commissioning  a  man  with  abso- 
lutely no  military  experience.  The  probable  reply  to 
such  application  would  be,  "Gentlemen,  we  have  a 
place  for  you — in  the  ranks. ' ' 

Training  Camps  are  a  development  of  the  college 
men's  camps  which  originated  in  1913.  The  few  that 
have  been  held  so  far  have  been  eminently  successful 
in  imparting  to  a  number  of  men  the  rudiments  of  field 
training  by  means  of  an  intensive  method,  and  have 
aroused  great  enthusiasm  among  those  attending. 

In  these  camps  the  men  are  by  degrees  accustomed  to 
the  long  marches  and  the  full  pack.  The  time  at  their 
disposal,  usually  thirty  days,  easily  permits  of  this, 
and  the  results  are  quite  different  from  those  obtained 
by  the  average  militia  organizations  on  maneuvers  of 
perhaps  a  week's  duration,  where  the  rule  is  a  full 
pack  and  usually  a  march  of  fair  length  from  the  very 
beginning. 

The  most  famous  camp,  that  of  the  "First  Training 
Regiment/'  at  Plattsburg,  N.  Y.,  attracted  a  large 
number  of  men  prominent  in  various  walks  of  life,  and 
the  course  of  training  was  carefully  laid  out  to  illus- 


HOW  TO  OBTAIN  A  MILITARY  TRAINING  17 

trate  the  problems  which  will  confront  troops  in  the 
field.  The  success  of  the  camp  was  largely  due  to  the 
type  of  men  attending  and  the  intelligence  displayed 
in  grasping  the  principles  involved  as  well  as  to  the 
tact  and  hard  work  of  the  officer  instructors. 

After  the  day's  drill  it  was  customary  to  hold  lec- 
tures upon  military  subjects,  mostly  explanatory  of 
the  drills  and  maneuvers  executed  during  the  day. 

The  attitude  of  the  daily  press  was  probably  the  one 
objectionable  feature  of  the  encampment.  The  camp 
was  hailed  as  the  last  word  in  military  education, 
grinding  out  fully  trained  officers  in  thirty  days'  in- 
tensive instruction.  That  this  attitude  was  not  shared 
by  the  men  themselves  nor  contemplated  by  the  army 
officers  who  were  their  instructors  is  easily  seen  from 
their  writings  and  public  utterances.  The  above  men- 
tioned press  items,  however,  might  be  productive  of 
much  misunderstanding  on  the  part  of  prospective 
participants. 

It  is  conceded  that  a  man  of  natural  ability,  accus- 
tomed to  handling  men,  might  learn  enough  of  field 
conditions  at  such  a  camp  to  carry  him  successfully 
through  a  campaign  as  a  company  officer  of  volunteers. 
But  unless  he  has  had  previous  military  training,  it 
is  certain  that  he  must  take  the  field  lacking  in  some 
of  the  knowledge  that  an  officer  should  have,  and  if  the 
exigencies  of  the  campaign  do  not  call  for  exercise  of 
this  knowledge  at  some  critical  moment,  he  is  fortunate. 
For  a  man  who  has  undergone  military  training  in 
college,  and  has  had  experience  as  a  cadet  officer,  the 
training  camp  would  furnish  the  necessary  field  service 
to  complete  his  military  education  and  fit  him  for  a 
volunteer  commission. 

That  field  service  alone,  however,  of  limited  duration 
and  unsupported  by  previous  training,  can  fully  pre- 
pare a  man  to  lead  troops  in  modern  warfare,  is  a  pro- 


18  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

position  not  to  be  seriously  considered.  The  following 
quotations  may  throw  some  light  upon  the  subject. 

The  first  is  from  a  circular  issued  by  those  in  charge 
of  the  training  camps  for  the  summer  of  1916,  and 
shows  their  view-point  as  to  the  scope  of  the  instruction 
given : 

*' '  The  aim  is  to  give  men  of  average  physique  four 
or  five  weeks  a  year  of  intensive  military  instruction  un- 
der officers  of  the  Regular  Army,  so  that  at  the  end  of 
that  time  men  of  no  previous  military  experience  will,  at 
least,  have  learned  the  rudiments  of  military  organiza- 
tion and  discipline  and  use  of  the  military  rifle,  and 
become  somewhat  familiar  with  the  equipment,  feed- 
ing and  sanitary  care  of  an  army  in  the  field,  and  the 
handling  and  control  of  men  in  maneuvers. " 

The  second  is  from  an  anonymous  article  reviewed 
in  the  International  Military  Digest  for  February, 
1916,  and  presents  the  views  of  a  member  of  the  First 
Training  Regiment  at  Plattsburg. 

"Note.  This  is  written  from  the  standpoint  of  a 
'rear-rank  private'  at  the  recent  camp  of  instruction 
at  Plattsburg,  N.  Y. 

'  Our  first  reflections  concerned  organization.  Here 
we  were,  thirteen  hundred  eager,  unskilled  men  from 
civil  life,  parodying  what  happens  when  our  country 
goes  to  war.  A  miracle  of  transformation  was  wrought 
upon  us.  In  two  days  wre  had  ceased  to  be  a  mob.  In  a 
week  we  had  got  by  the  first  appalling  fatigue.  In  a 
fortnight  we  had  developed  out  of  nothing  our  own 
noncommissioned  officers.  Three  weeks  had  made  an 
effective  if  ragged  regiment  of  us. 

"  'It  needed  little  reflection  to  see  that  the  health, 
order,  and  spirit  of  Plattsburg  could  never  be  im- 
provised. These  depend  upon  long  founded  ex- 
perience and  intelligence.  I  imagined  what  would  be- 
fall us  if  all  the  cooks,  doctors,  officers,  and  regular 

*  Italics   are   the  author's. 


HOW  TO  OBTAIN  A  MILITARY  TRAINING  10 

privates  were  suddenly  withdrawn  and  the  '  Business 
Men's  Regiment '  left  to  its  own  devices.  Even  in 
time  of  peace  the  result  would  be  calamitous. 

"  'A  more  ominous  reflection  came  on  the  first  day 
of  combat  tactics  in  open  order.  Suppose  this  were 
not  the  end  of  the  drill,  after  two  weeks  of  amateur 
soldiering,  but  the  beginning  of  a  battle,  after  two 
weeks  of  real  war.  Who  would  teach  us  to  shoot  twice 
a  minute  and  to  roll  over  in  changing  position  when  to 
rise  were  death?  Not  our  present  captain  and  lieu- 
tenant, not  our  smiling  and  steely-eyed  regular  ser- 
geant, but  just  willing  duffers  like  ourselves,  fighting 
by  day  and  learning  how  to  fight  out  of  'Infantry 
Drill  Regulations'  at  night.  As  things  go  in  modern 
war,  should  the  regular  army  have  to  face  a  powerful 
foe,  there  would  in  a  month  be  no  regular  army.  The 
funded  military  intelligence  of  the  nation  would  be 
shot  to  pieces  in  just  about  four  weeks.  The  men  who 
could  make  soldiers  out  of  the  million  men,  who  we  are 
assured  would  spring  to  arms,  would  be  themselves 
in  soldiers'  graves  or  lying  unburied. 

'To  imagine  ourselves  in  any  sense  protected  be- 
cause the  American  is  a  natural  fighting  man  is  the  last 
folly. 

'  'After  a  month  we  could  march,  camp,  shoot,  take 
care  of  ourselves,  maneuver  a  few  hours  a  day.  I  think 
that  perhaps  a  quarter  of  us  had  hardened  enough  to 
do  much  more  than  required  of  the  regiment,  but  most 
of  us  were  still  far  from  fit  it  to  stand  the  physical 
strain  of  actual  warfare.  Here  is  a  whole  side  of  prep- 
aration for  war  about  which  there  is  the  wildest  mis- 
conception. People  cannot  realize  that  a  stalwart  un- 
trained citizen  is  no  more  physically  fit  to  fight  than  a 
sturdy  untrained  freshman  is  fit  to  step  into  a  football 
match/  ' 

That  field  training  alone  is  not  the  best  system  of 
developing  officers  is  recognized  by  the  War  Depart- 


20  PREPAREDNESS    AND   TTTE   ENGINEER 

ment  in  the  course  of  instruction  followed  at  West 
Point.  Instead  of  living  in  camp  for  a  year,  under- 
going intensive  training,  and  then  receiving  their 
commissions  in  the  Army,  the  cadets  are  given  a 
thorough  theoretical  course  along  with  their  prac- 
tical work. 

The  soldier's  instruction  comprises  rifle  shooting, 
physical  drill,  marching,  camping,  sanitation,  care  of 
self  and  equipment,  drills  in  the  tactical  duties  of  his 
branch  of  the  service,  and  discipline.  There  is  nothing 
in  this  list  that  cannot  be  much  better  taught  in  the 
field  than  in  barracks,  and  field  training  is  therefore 
ideal  for  the  enlisted  man,  but  an  officer  must  know 
more. 

The  prospective  officer  studies  the  Art  of  War,  so 
that,  instead  of  blindly  leading  his  troops  as  he  is  told, 
he  has  some  intelligent  idea  of  the  purpose  of  it  all.  He 
studies  Military  History,  for  there  is  no  better  prepa- 
ration for  conducting  campaigns  than  by  the  study  of 
past  operations.  Napoleon  was  a  great  believer  in  the 
efficacy  of  study  as  preliminary  to  leadership,  and  is 
on  record  as  having  shown  marked  preference  for  a 
man  known  to  be  a  deep  student  of  military  science 
over  one  of  much  experience  but  little  military  educa- 
tion. 

The  student  officer  must  also  learn  the  theory  of  his 
practical  work.  A  soldier  may  know  the  mechanical 
processes  of  making  a  road  sketch,  but  the  officer  must 
know  the  principles  of  surveying  involved,  in  order  to 
become  an  instructor;  the  soldier  may  be  able  to  con- 
struct a  satisfactory  firing  trench,  but  some  officer 
must  decide  where  that  trench  is  to  be  located,  and  the 
type  to  be  constructed,  in  order  to  best  attain  the  de- 
sired result;  a  sergeant  may  erect  a  spar  bridge,  using 
timber  of  the  correct  size  to  carry  the  load  safely,  but 
is  was  an  officer  who  first  computed  the  sizes  of  timber 
necessary  for  the  various  spans,  and  put  them  in  the 


HOW  TO  OBTAIN  A  MILITARY  TRAINING  21 

Field  Manual  where  they  became  accessible  to  the  ser- 
geant. 

In  short,  the  officer  must  acquire  a  considerable  theo- 
retical training  and,  while  his  education  is  not  com- 
plete without  field  service,  neither  is  the  latter  sufficient 
in  itself.  It  is  told  of  von  Moltke  that  he  valued  ex- 
ceedingly an  old  black-board  in  his  quarters.  Upon 
this  board  he  worked  out  problems  in  tactics,  strategy 
and  map  maneuvers;  laying  out  hypothetical  situa- 
tions, considering  the  conditions  and  location  of  his 
own  forces,  similar  data  regarding  the  enemy,  prepar- 
ing a  plan  of  action,  and  writing  out  the  necessary 
orders  to  his  subordinates  to  carry  out  the  plan 
adopted.  To  this  training  he  largely  attributed  the 
great  success  of  his  campaigns  in  the  Franco-Prussian 
War. 

Finally,  the  whole  question  of  volunteer  officers  re- 
duces itself  to  one  of  expediency.  If  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  fully  trained  officers  are  not  available,  then  we 
must  make  use  of  the  best  material  we  have,  and  in 
such  a  case  many  graduates  of  the  training  camps 
would  undoubtedly  receive  commissions.  While  not 
possessing  all  the  qualifications  that  could  be  desired, 
these  men  would  be  vastly  preferable  to  the  political 
appointees  who  officered  many  of  the  volunteers  in  the 
Spanish  War. 

To  the  prospective  training  camp  recruit,  therefore, 
the  following  advice  may  well  be  given. 

1.  If  you  have  an  opportunity  of  attending  this 
camp,  do  so,  and  go  again  each  summ;er  if  the  camps 
are  held,  for  there  is  something  you  can  learn  at  each 
tour  of  duty. 

2.  Do  not  imagine  that  your  service  entitles  you  to 
a  commission,  but  work  as  if  it  were  certain  that  you 
would  command  troops  in  our  next  war,  and  make  it  a 
point  to  learn  all  that  you  can  regarding  an  officer's 
job. 


22  PREPAREDNESS   AND  THE  ENGINEER 

3.  iSupplement  your  field  training  by  home  study. 

4.  If  you  can  possibly  do  so,  follow  up  your  train- 
ing by  joining  some  National  Guard  organization. 

It  has  been  urged  that  National  Guard  officers,  as 
a  class,  regard  the  system  of  Training  Camps  as  a  sort 
of  unfair  competition  to  their  efforts  at  building  up 
their  own  organizations,  by  offering  more  attractive 
service  and  precedence  in  the  matter  of  volunteer  rank, 
without  the  disadvantages  and  inconveniences  of  ser- 
vice in  the  National  Guard.  The  following  letter  from 
the  Commanding  Officer,  National  Guard  New  York, 
to  the  Officer  in  Charge  of  the  Military  Training 
Camps,  published  in  the  descriptive  circular  of  these 
camps,  is  self-explanatory: 

"HEADQUARTERS  N.  G.  N.  Y. 

New  York,  January  17,  1916. 

' '  The  question  is  sometimes  asked  whether  there  is 
any  conflict  of  interest  or  of  effort  between  the  organ- 
izations of  the  National  Guard  and  the  training  camps 
for  college  and  business  men.  This  question  may  not 
only  be  answered  emphatically  in  the  negative,  but 
may  be  affirmatively  stated  with  equal  emphasis  that 
the  training  regiments  have  been  of  benefit  to  the 
National  Guard,  of  this  State  at  least.  A  very  consider- 
able number  of  men  of  the  Plattsburg  training  regi- 
ment have  joined  organizations  of  the  New  York 
Division,  some  as  commissioned  officers  and  some  as 
enlisted  men. 

"Wholly  aside  from  the  foregoing  there  is  another 
aspect  of  the  training  camps  which  should  not  be  lost 
sight  of.  There  are  in  some  localities  men  who  desire 
military  training,  but  who  are  so  circumstanced  that 
they  cannot  make  available  for  the  purpose  the  amount 
of  time  demanded  by  service  in  the  National  Guard. 
Some  of  the  men  in  this  class  find  it  possible  to  de- 
vote thirty  days  for  training  during  the  summer 


HOW  TO  OBTAIN  A  MILITARY  TRAINING  23 

months.  The  training  camps  furnish  the  needed  op- 
portunity for  men  in  this  class.  These  camps  are  there- 
fore performing  a  service  to  the  nation  in  respect  to 
such  men,  which  it  is  not  possible  for  the  National 
Guard  to  perform. 

' '  I  have  no  hesitation  in  urging  upon  officers  of  the 
National  Guard  throughout  the  State  their  fullest  co- 
operation in  support  of  the  excellent  movement  repre- 
sented by  the  training  camps.  In  New  York  State 
facilities  have  been  provided  in  some  of  the  armories 
for  detachments  of  men  of  the  training  camps  who  de- 
sire to  continue  the  work  begun  at  Plattsburg. 

(Signed)     JOHN  F.  O'RYAN, 
Major  General,  N.  G.  N.  Y." 

At  the  beginning  of  this  chapter  there  were  listed 
five  ways  in  which  a  military  training  might  be  ob- 
tained, four  of  which  have  been  discussed.  That  re- 
maining, the  National  Guard,  will  be  treated  of  in  the 
following  chapter. 


III. 

THE  NATIONAL  GUARD. 

The  land  forces  of  the  United  States  as  at  present 
constituted  (February,  1916)  consist  of: 

1.  The  Regular  Army. 

2.  The  Organized  Militia  (National  Guard). 

3.  The  Volunteers. 

History.  The  militia  comprises  all  able-bodied  male 
citizens  between  the  ages  of  18  and  45,  and  under  the 
Constitution  Congress  has  the  authority  to  call  forth 
the  militia  for  the  purpose  of  executing  the  laws,  sup- 
pressing insurrection  and  repelling  invasion,  also  to 
provide  for  organizing,  arming  and  disciplining  the 
militia  and  for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be 
employed  in  the  service  of  the  United  States,  reserving 
to  the  states  the  appointment  of  officers  and  the  author- 
ity of  training  the  militia  according  to  the  discipline 
prescribed  by  Congress. 

It  was  originally  required  that  the  militia  be  mus- 
tered once  a  year,  after  which  there  would  be  a  drill 
by  some  former  officer  of  the  Army  or  by  some  officer 
elected  or  appointed  from  among  the  militiamen.  The 
evolutions  executed  on  these  "Training  Days"  were 
fearful  and  wonderful  to  behold,  and  yet  these  were 
the  only  forces  that  stood  between  the  United  States 
and  absolute  annihilation,  there  being  practically  no 
Regular  Army  at  this  time. 

The  action  of  the  militia  has  been  most  disgraceful 
in  every  war  in  which  they  have  been  engaged.  All 
during  the  Revolution  they  were  sent  to  the  army  in 
large  numbers  by  the  various  states,  and  promptly  de- 

24 


THE    NATIONAL    GUARD  25 

serted  when  harvest  time  came  or  when  they  tired  of 
the  service.  In  the  War  of  1812  a  force  of  2,500,  large- 
ly militia,  abandoned  the  National  Capital  to  a  force  of 
1500  British,  after  a  loss  of  8  killed  and  11  wounded ! 
Short  term  volunteers  have  invariably  insisted  upon 
leaving  for  home  immediately  upon  the  expiration  of 
their  term  of  service,  regardless  of  the  military  neces- 
sities of  the  moment.  The  cause  of  these  defections  is 
apparent — lack  of  training,  and  it  is  due  to  these  very 
glaring  faults  of  the  system  as  it  then  existed  that  the 
militia  worked  out  its  own  remedy. 

There  were  in  those  days  men  who  had  military 
foresight,  just  as  there  are  at  present,  and  these  men, 
many  of  whom  had  served  in  the  Colonial  or  Indian 
Wars,  began,  as  a  protest  against  the  burlesque  drills 
of  the  annual  "Training  Days,"  the  drilling  of  inde- 
pendent companies  and  troops  of  men  from  their  own 
neighborhoods.  These  organizations,  which  had  no 
connection  with  the  War  Department,  were  maintained 
at  their  own  expense,  and  were  soon  able  to  completely 
outshine  the  militia  in  their  annual  drills.  Some  of 
the  smaller  units  were  eventually  combined  into  bat- 
talions and  regiments,  uniforms  were  adopted,  and  the 
National  Guard,  as  they  called  themselves,  became  the 
beginning  of  a  disciplined  force. 

The  War  Department,  recognizing  the  increased 
efficiency  of  these  troops  over  the  raw  militia,  eventual- 
ly admitted  them  into  the  scheme  of  the  nation 's  land 
defenses,  though  at  first  with  little  supervision  and 
practically  no  support.  The  states,  also,  encouraged 
the  movement  as  tending  toward  a  better  training  of 
their  militia,  and  early  acquired  supervision  over  the 
National  Guard.  There  was  no  authority  for  Federal 
control  except  as  a  portion  of  the  militia,  so  the  term 
Organized  Militia  was  applied  to  those  forces  which 
were  organized  and  under  arms,  to  distinguished  them 
from  the  great  mass  of  the  Unorganized  Militia. 


26  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

Even  then,  however,  the  National  Guard  was  not 
highly  etsteemed  as  a  national  force.  Its  functions 
were  largely  social ;  and  its  tours  of  field  service  were 
characterized  by  much  pomp  and  display.  Effective 
use  of  the  rifle  in  executing  the  Manual  of  Arms  took 
precedence  over  its  use  as  a  fire-arm,  and  the  drill  was 
largely  confined  to  close-order  infantry  formations.  In 
the  scheme  of  defense  it  was  contemplated  to  call  out 
the  Organized  Militia  only  after  the  Volunteers  had 
been  recruited  and  mustered  into  service.  In  fact,  it 
was  looked  upon  as  a  home  guard,  not  intended  for 
active  service. 

The  Spanish-American  War  gave  the  National  Guard 
its  real  awakening.  Many  organizations  which  desired 
to  volunteer  bodily  found  that  they  could  not  be  mus- 
tered intact  into  the  service  of  the  United  States,  but 
must  volunteer  individually.  There  was  no  machinery 
for  taking  over  the  various  regiments  and  companies 
as  organizations,  so  that  practically  the  same  confusion 
resulted  as  in  the  enlistment  of  volunteers,  each  man 
being  required  to  enlist  individually.  In  the  field  it 
was  found  that  armory  drills  had  not  fitted  the  men  for 
the  hardships  of  tropical  campaigns,  nor  to  combat 
successfully  the  camp  diseases  which  attacked  the  mo- 
bilized troops. 

The  National  Guard  of  To-day.  With  the  end  of  the 
war  and  the  reorganization  of  the  Army,  came  a  call 
for  increased  efficiency  in  the  National  Guard.  By 
means  of  the  so-called  Dick  bill  (1903),  the  Organized 
Militia  became  a  portion  of  the  first  line  of  defense,  to 
serve  with  the  Regular  Army  and  to  be  called  out  in 
advance  of  the  Volunteers.  Advancement  has  since 
been  rapid.  All  organizations  are  now  inspected  reg- 
ularly and  judged  by  their  field  efficiency  alone.  Joint 
maneuvers  with  regular  troops  have  similated  war  con- 
ditions. Officers  of  the  militia  have  been  admitted  to 
the  Service  Schools  of  the  Army,  and  have  later  ren- 


THE   NATIONAL   GUARD  27 

dered  valuable  service  as  instructors  in  their  own  com- 
mands. Army  Officers  of  the  various  arms  of  the  ser- 
vice have  been  appointed  Inspector-Instructors  to  cor- 
responding troops  of  the  militia,  resulting  in  great 
profit  to  the  latter  and  in  greatly  increased  fellow 
feeling  and  understanding  between  the  two  services. 

The  Organized  Militia  of  to-day  is  a  far  cry  from  the 
"Hay-foot,  Straw-foot,"  drills  of  the  early  19th  cen- 
tury. 

Defects  of  the  National  Guard.  But  much  as  the 
National  Guard  has  advanced,  there  are  yet  great 
strides  to  be  made  before  it  can  justify  itself  as  a  first- 
line  defensive  force.  There  are  excellent  organizations 
in  the  Guard,  and  there  is  much  individual  excellence, 
but  as  a  whole  it  leaves  much  to  be  desired. 

Inefficiency,  as  applied  to  an  organization,  must  be 
considered  as  a  relative  term.  National  Guard  troops 
are  not  as  efficient  as  those  of  the  Army ;  various  organ- 
izations of  the  former  are  less  efficient  than  others ; 
while  any  one  of  these  units  is  vastly  more  efficient  than 
the  militia  of  Colonial  times.  To  dub  a  regiment  or 
company  "inefficient,"  therefore,  does  not  necessarily 
mean  that  it  is  utterly  worthless,  and  incapable  of  im- 
provement. 

In  any  war  that  we  might  have,  with  even  a  small 
state,  the  Army  and  Organized  Militia  combined  would 
be  insufficient,  and  we  should  have  to  call  out  numbers 
of  volunteers  from  the  Unorganized  Militia.  These 
men,  if  rnshed  to  the  front  without  adequate  prepara- 
tion, would  be  about  on  a  par  with  the  militia  of  Wash- 
in  ^rt  on  7s  time,  with  this  exception :  Washington's 
militia  knew  how  to  shoot  and  to  live  out  of  doors. 

The  first  serious  defect  in  the  militia  therefore,  lies 
in  its  size.  The  training,  however  thorough,  cannot 
suffice  if  we  must  in  the  end  depend  upon  troops  who 
have  had  no  training.  The  theory  of  militia  service  is 
excellent.  The  men  are  not  taken  away  from  productive 


28  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

pursuits  for  two  years  at  a  time,  as  in  case  of  compul- 
sory service  in  the  army,  and  the  expense  is  much 
lighter  than  where  the  Government  must  pay  for  the 
full  time  of  a  man,  in  addition  to  housing,  clothing 
and  subsisting  him.  A  much  larger  force  can  be  main- 
tained, therefore,  than  would  be  possible  in  a  standing 
army.  At  the  same  time,  the  Government  must  expect 
to  receive  less  in  the  way  of  efficiency  than  from  troops 
who  devote  their  whole  time  to  military  matters.  If 
the  Federal  Government  is  willing  to  stand  the  in- 
creased cost,  the  Organized  Militia  can  be  expanded 
to  the  size  necessary  to  properly  reinforce  the  Army. 
It  has  been  estimated  by  the  General  Staff  that  ten 
militiamen  can  be  maintained  at  the  same  cost  as  one 
soldier,  so  that  an  increase  in  the  militia  of  500,000  men 
would  cost  no  more  than  50,000  additional  soldiers. 
Half  a  million  partially  trained  soldiers  would  prob- 
ably be  more  effective  at  the  outset  of  war  than  a  highly 
efficient  force  of  50,000  regulars,  who  would  be  cut  to 
pieces  in  the  first  battle. 

It  is  not  believed  that  the  recruiting  of  such  a  force 
will  present  insuperable  difficulties.  The  National 
Guard  is  now  looked  upon  as  an  aggregation  of  mili- 
tary enthusiasts,  who  join  simply  to  gratify  their  love 
of  playing  soldier.  The  distrust  of  the  War  Depart- 
ment is  reflected  in  the  general  public,  and  the  busy 
citizen  regards  the  service  as  a  form  of  recreation, 
which  may  become  exceedingly  annoying  by  making  in- 
convenient demands  upon  his  time.  If  it  were  realized 
by  the  average  man  that  his  work  in  the  militia  would 
not  ~be  wasted,  but  would  count  towards  national  de- 
fense, and  that  the  War  Department  depended  upon 
the  National  Guard  and  considered  it  an  integral  part 
of  the  land  forces  of  the  United  States,  then  many  of 
the  objections  to  membership  would  be  removed.  This 
establishment  of  the  true  status  of  the  National  Guard, 
and  giving  it  a  serious  and  well  understood  role,  would, 


TTTE   NATIONAL   GUARD  29 

in  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  do  more  towards  filling  its 
ranks  than  the  expedients  of  Federalization  and  regu- 
lar pay  for  its  members. 

The  basic  principle  of  the  National  Guard  is  volun- 
tary service,  and  this  the  average  citizen  is  willing  to 
give,  even  at  considerable  inconvenience  and  expense 
to  himself,  if  he  knows  that  he  will  be  taken  seriously 
and  his  work  appreciated. 

That  Federalization  and  Government  pay  will  ac- 
complish much  cannot  be  denied.  Uniformity  of  con- 
trol will  be  assured  by  the  former,  and  the  War  De- 
partment will  be  removed  from  the  position  of  sup- 
porting and  instructing  a  force  upon  whose  service 
they  cannot  absolutely  depend  in  timje  of  war.  The 
matter  of  Federal  pay  is  questionable.  It  will  un- 
doubtedly lead  to  a  closer  accounting  for  property, 
and  will  compel  better  attendance.  It  will  also  enable 
the  War  Department  to  demand  more  in  the  way  of 
qualifications  for  warrants  and  commissions,  and  in  the 
amount  of  duty  required.  Most  officers  of  the  writer 's 
acquaintance  do  not  favor  pay  for  themselves,  fearing 
that  the  additional  duties  required  to  earn  it  would 
make  prohibitive  demands  upon  their  time.  Nearly  all 
favor  pay  for  the  enlisted  man,  as  reimbursing  him  in 
a  measure  for  the  cost  of  his  service,  company  dues, 
car-fare,  repairs  to  his  uniforms,  etc,  and  as  a  means 
of  enforcing  a  stricter  responsibility  for  the  property 
which  is  issued  to  him.  The  main  objection  is  the  same 
as  for  the  officers,  that  the  pay  will  bring  such  disad- 
vantages in  the  way  of  increased  duty  as  to  defeat  its 
own  purpose  and  discourage  enlistment. 

The  Organized  Militia  is  the  only  force  we  have 
which  even  approximates  the  Regular  Army  as  to  or- 
ganization, equipment  and  training.  It  originated  en- 
tirely as  a  volunteer  force,  without  the  support  or  even 
the  official  recognition  of  the  War  Department.  It 
forced  this  recognition  by  marked  superiority  over  the 


30  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

old  system.  It  has  tried  hard  to  free  itself  from  the 
out  of  date  legislation  which  hinders  its  development 
in  order  to  justify  its  claim  to  consideration  as  a  de- 
fensive force.  Above  all,  there  is  not  now  a  single 
officer  or  man  in  the  service  but  who  has  enlisted  with 
the  idea  of  some  day  fighting  for  his  country.  In  spirit 
the  Guard  is  a  national  force.  To  secure  to  the  nation 
the  results  already  accomplished  and  to  give  an  incen- 
tive to  still  further  efforts,  there  should  be  no  hesitation 
in  making  it  one  in  fact. 

But  even  if  no  change  be  made,  if  the  militia  be 
forced  to  stumible  along  as  heretofore,  without  the 
slightest  idea  of  their  status  in  war,  and  no  officer  sure 
of  his  commission  after  muster  into  the  Federal  ser- 
vice, there  is  still  much  that  can  be  done  in  the  way  of 
effective  preparedness.  Though  organizations  as  a 
whole  may  not  be  acceptable  to  the  War  Department, 
owing  to  the  legal  difficulties  of  their  transfer  from 
state  to  Federal  control,  yet  in  a  serious  war  every 
man  with  military  training  will  be  welcome  as  an  indi- 
vidual. It  may  indeed  happen  that,  through  the  great 
expansion  of  our  forces,  he  would  hold  much  higher 
rank  than  his  experience  justified,  simply  because  of 
the  great  number  of  vacancies  and  the  scarcity  of  qual- 
ified men  to  fill  them. 

The  War  Department  does  distrust  the  National 
Guard  as  a  force  upon  which  much  reliance  could  be 
placed  in  time  of  war,  and  perhaps  with  good  reason. 
The  governor  of  any  state,  not  in  sympathy  with  the 
policies  of  the  party  in  power  at  Washington,  may 
carry  his  antipathy  to  the  extent  of  desiring  to  em- 
barrass the  Administration  even  at  a  serious  cost  to 
the  nation.  It  is  within  his  power  to  disband  entirely 
the  Organized  Militia  of  his  own  state  in  the  face  of 
impending  war.  Furthermore,  if  accepted  bodily  into 
the  Federal  service,  the  militia  would  be  commanded 
by  a  number  of  general  officers,  of  whom  practically 


THE   NATIONAL   GUARD  31 

every  state  has  a  few,  many  of  whom  are  political  ap- 
pointees purely,  have  no  preliminary  training  in  the 
ranks,  and  are  absolutely  unfit  for  the  commands  to 
which  their  rank  would  entitle  them. 

This  is  probably  the  most  serious  obstacle  in  the  way 
of  an  organized  militia  ready  to  take  the  field  intact.  It 
can  possibly  be  remedied  by  Federalization,  in  which 
case  the  higher  officers  would  be  detailed  from  the 
Army  or  appointed  upon  qualifications  specified  by  the 
War  Department. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  main  objections  to  the 
National  Guard  deal  only  with  its  system  of  control, 
and  not  with  its  personnel  and  training.  In  fact,  the 
training,  as  far  as  it  goes,  is  identical  with  that  given 
the  Army.  It  is  prescribed  by  the  War  Department, 
carried  out  under  the  supervision  of  Army  officers,  and 
followed  conscientiously  during  the  time  available. 
There  need  be  no  fear,  therefore,  that  one  will  receive 
incorrect  or  out  of  date  instruction  in  the  National 
Guard. 

Engineers  of  the  National  Guard.  To  one  seeking  a 
military  training,  particularly  to  the  technical  man 
who  desires  to  qualify  for  an  engineer  commission  in 
the  volunteers,  there  can  be  no  better  course  than  en- 
listment in  the  engineer  corps  of  the  militia.  These 
organizations  are  few  in  the  country,  comprising  only 
about  20  companies,  12  of  which  are  organized  into  3 
battalions.  The  War  Department  is  very  anxious, 
however,  to  establish  more  engineers  in  the  militia,  and 
will  gladly  render  assistance  to  any  body  of  engineers 
desiring  to  form  a  company.  Full  information  as  to 
the  proper  proceedure  may  be  obtained  from  the 
DIVISION  OF  MILITIA  AFFAIRS,  GENERAL  STAFF,  U.  S. 
ARMY,  WASHINGTON,  and  the  ADJUTANT-GENERAL  of 
the  state  concerned. 

In  the  New  York  National  Guard  there  are  eight 
companies,  organized  as  one  Pioneer  Battalion  and  one 


32  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE  ENGINEER 

Ponton  Battalion.  Their  housing  and  equipment  are 
exceptionally  complete  and  up  to  date.  And  yet,  in 
New  York  City,  where  more  engineers  are  gathered 
than  in  any  city  in  the  United  States,  the  rolls  of  these 
battalions  have  in  the  past  included  painfully  few  tech- 
nical men.  Even  now,  with  engineers  fully  awake  as 
to  the  necessity  of  preparedness,  there  is  a  marked  re- 
luctance to  enlist.  Some  fear  that  their  work  will  be 
wasted,  others  that  it  will  interfere  with  business,  but 
the  main  reason  is  a  lack  of  information  among  en- 
gineers as  to  the  true  meaning  of  service  in  the  En- 
gineer Corps.  The  issue  is  obscured,  moreover,  by  the 
numerous  substitutes  which  are  offered  for  National 
Guard  service. 

It  must  be  realized  that  if  any  effective  preparedness 
is  to  be  accomplished  by  the  engineering  profession,  it 
must  be  based  upon  individual  effort.  If  each  engineer 
is  prepared  to  perform  his  work  in  war,  then  all  are 
prepared.  The  question  of  what  is  to  be  done  does  not 
depend  upon  Congress,  the  President,  or  the  War  De- 
partment. It  rests  with  each  engineer  to  decide  for 
himself,  whether  he  shall  take  effective  steps  to  prepare, 
leaving  the  question  of  his  neighbor's  preparedness 
for  the  neighbor  himself  to  decide,  or  whether  he  will 
let  the  other  man  prepare  while  he  holds  back. 

There  is  no  royal  road  to  military  knowledge.  It 
must  be  obtained  through  some  military  organization. 
Every  cadet  that  enters  West  Point  must  serve  as  a 
private  in  the  cadet  battalion,  and  undergo  the  same 
discipline  as  a  soldier  in  the  army.  Engineers  have 
had  their  schooling,  and  are  now  engaged  in  business 
and  professional  work  and  the  only  practical  course 
open  to  one  such  who  seeks  military  training  is  enlist- 
ment in  the  engineers  of  the  National  Guard.  For  the 
sake  of  its  very  existence,  the  Guard  cannot  presume  to 
interfere  with  the  business  or  means  of  livelihood  of  its 
members;  honest  effort  to  learn  will  receive  every  en- 


THE    NATIONAL    GUARD  33 

couragemeiit  and  assistance  from  those  in  authority; 
and  all  work  done  will  count  towards  a  useful  end. 

As  in  the  Army,  a  private  learning  thoroughly  his 
own  duties  does  not  qualify  himself  for  a  commission, 
but  there  is  this  difference :  a  private  of  militia  spends 
perhaps  two  hours  a  week  learning  to  be  a  good  private, 
but  he  has  all  the  remaining  time  he  can  spare  to  de- 
vote to  higher  study,  and  no  matter  how  much  ad- 
ditional instruction  he  desires,  he  will  always  find  some 
one  willing  to  give  the  time  necessary  to  impart  it. 

It  is  not  the  policy  of  the  National  Guard  to  belittle 
the  work  done  by  the  Boy  Scout  movement,  the  college 
training,  citizens7  rifles  clubs  or  the  summer  training 
camps.  The  Boy  Scout  movement  accomplishes  a  great 
good  in  teaching  boys  elementary  woodcraft  and  that 
respect  for  authority  which  is  so  often  lacking  in  the 
younger  generation.  College  training,  if  properly 
conducted,  can  do  much  in  the  way  of  developing  sol- 
dierly qualities  during  the  character-forming  period 
of  a  young  man's  career.  Citizens'  rifle  clubs  not  only 
foster  a  noble  sport,  but  tend  to  develop  a  most  essen- 
tial part  of  military  training.  Summer  camps,  as  be- 
fore stated,  can  reach  men  for  whom  other  military 
training  is  impracticable,  and  also  contribute  towards 
the  awakening  of  many  to  a  sense  of  the  duty  they  owe 
their  country.  Rather  are  these  movements  regarded 
as  supplementing,  or  leading  up  to,  the  work  done  by 
the  National  Guard,  than  as  substitutes  for  it. 

Let  it  be  well  understood  that  any  man  who  may 
possess  the  smallest  part  of  a  military  training  will  re- 
duce by  that  much  the  preliminary  drill  which  will  be 
necessary  to  make  an  efficient  soldier  of  him  when  war 
is  declared,  and  any  system  which  imparts  this  train- 
ing is  rendering  a  useful  service.  But  there  will  be 
great  need  for  men  with  more  than  a  partial  training, 
and  the  greatest  service  is  therefore  rendered  by  the 
system  which  imparts  the  most  complete  training. 


IV. 

MILITARY   ORGANIZATION. 

Military  organization  is  of  necessity  the  most  cen- 
tralized and  complete  system  known.  There  is  an  un- 
broken chain  of  responsibility  reaching  from  the  com- 
mander-in-chief  down  to  the  rawest  recruit.  At  the 
same  time  there  is  a  continuous  line  of  succession  ex- 
tending through  all  the  grades  and  ranks,  so  that,  how- 
ever heavy  the  casualties,  there  is  always  one  leader, 
and  only  one,  to  whom  the  army  may  look  for  orders. 

In  order  to  secure  concerted  action  and  immediate 
response  to  the  will  of  the  commander,  soldiers,  both 
officers  and  men,  voluntarily  subject  themselves  to  dis- 
cipline, which  Col.  Wagner,  in  his  "Art  of  War/'  de- 
fines as  follows: 

' '  Discipline  is  that  quality  possessed  by  efficient  sol- 
diers, which  enables  each  to  appreciate  and  accept 
without  question  the  powers  and  limitations  of  his  own 
rank,  which  inspires  each  with  confidence  in  the  mili- 
tary steadfastness  of  his  comrades,  and  renders  obe- 
dience to  lawful  orders  a  second  nature. ' ' 

ARMY   ORGANIZATION. 

The  Army  is  made  up  of  two  main  divisions :  the  Line 
and  the  Staff.  The  latter  is  charged  with  most  of  the 
administrative  work,  the  former  with  the  actual  fight- 
ing. 

The  Staff.     The  various  Staff  Departments  are : 

The  General  Staff,  which  prepares  all  plans  for  de- 
fense and  mobilization,  investigates  all  questions  affec- 
ting the  efficiency  of  the  Army,  and  acts  in  an  advisory 
capacity  to  the  Secretary  of  War. 

The  Adjutant  General's  Department,  which  handles 
all  orders,  correspondence  and  records  of  the  Army. 

34 


MILITARY    ORGANIZATION  35 

The  Inspector  General's  Department,  which  inspects 
and  reports  upon  all  matters  affecting  the  efficiency  of 
the  Army,  the  condition  of  property  and  supplies,  and 
the  expenditure  of  public  funds. 

The  Judge  Advocate  General's  Department,  which 
is  the  legal  bureau  of  the  Army,  and  has  charge  of  all 
records  of  general  court  martials,  courts  of  inquiry,  and 
military  commissions. 

The  Quartermaster  Corps,  comprising  the  former 
Quartermaster,  Subsistence  (Commissary)  and  Pay 
Departments.  This  corps  is  charged  with  the  trans- 
portation, clothing,  housing,  subsistence,  supply  and 
pay  of  the  Army,  and  with  all  duties  pertaining  to 
military  operations  which  are  not  specifically  assigned 
to  some  other  department. 

The  Medical  Department,  which  supervises  the  sani- 
tary condition  of  the  Army,  physical  examinations, 
care  of  sick  and  wrounded,  and  the  management  of  mili- 
tary hospitals. 

The  Ordnance  Department,  which  supplies  arms, 
equipment  and  ammunition  to  the  Army.  This  depart- 
ment designs  and  manufactures  fighting  material  of 
all  kinds,  field  equipment,  horse  equipment,  etc.,  and 
maintains  the  arsenals  where  this  material  is  made,  re- 
paired and  stored. 

The  Signal  Corps,  which  constructs,  repairs  and  op- 
erates all  military  telegraph  and  telephone  lines  and 
cables,  balloon  trains,  aeroplanes,  etc. 

The  Corps  of  Engineers,  which  surveys  and  maps 
the  terrain,  plans  fortifications  and  field  works,  and 
lays  out  lines  of  communication.  Engineer  officers  of 
the  Staff  should  be  distinguished  from  those  serving 
with  troops,  who  are  a  part  of  the  Line. 

Staff  officers  hold  military  rank  as  do  those  of  the 
Line,  but  do  not  exercise  command  unless  placed  upon 
duty  under  orders  directing  them  to  do  so. 

The  Line.     The  Line  comprises  the  fighting  troops, 


36  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

the  Infantry,  or  foot  soldiers ;  the  Cavalry,  or  horse  sol- 
diers ;  the  Field  Artillery,  which  accompanies  the  Army 
in  the  field,  the  Coast  Artillery,  which  operates  the 
coast  defenses,  and  the  Engineers,  who  perform  the 
duties  outlined  in  Chapter  VI. 

The  Line  is  composed  of  Officers,  who  exercise  com- 
mand by  virtue  of  com/missions  issued  by  the  President, 
(or,  in  the  National  Guard,  by  the  Governor)  and  the 
enlisted  men.  The  latter  include  priv at es,a,nd  Non-Com- 
missioned Officers  (Sergeants  and  Corporals),  who 
exercise  limited  authority  by  virtue  of  warrants  issued 
by  their  Commanding  Officers. 

The  N on-Commissioned  Staff  of  a  Post,  Regiment  or 
Battalion  consists  of  the  Sergeant -Major  and  the  Quar- 
termaster Sergeant.  The  Sergeant-Major's  duties 
correspond  to  those  of  a  first  sergeant. 

TACTICAL  ORGANIZATION. 

A  squad  comprises  seven  privates  and  a  corporal. 

Three  or  four  squads  form  a  platoon,  commanded  by 
a  sergeant  or  a  lieutenant. 

Four  platoons  form  the  company,  which  is  command- 
ed by  a  captain  and  is  the  smallest  administrative  unit 
of  the  army. 

Four  companies  form  a  battalion,  which  is  command- 
ed by  a  major,  and  is  the  smallest  unit  which  will  oper- 
ate independently  in  the  field.  The  staff  of  the  major 
comprises  an  adjutant  and  a  supply  officer  (quarter- 
master) . 

Three  battalions  form  a  regiment,  commanded  by  a 
colonel.  A  lieutenant -colonel  may  command  any  frac- 
tion of  a  regim;ent  greater  than  a  battalion.  Regiments 
of  engineers  are  not  now  authorized  in  our  service.  The 
staff  of  a  colonel  consists  of  an  adjutant  and  a  quarter- 
master. 

Three  regiments  form  a  brigade,  commanded  by  a 
brigadier-general. 


MILITARY    ORGANIZATION  37 

An  infantry  division,  commanded  by  a  major-gen- 
eral, is  a  complete  army  in  itself,  and  comprises  three 
brigades  (nine  regiments)  of  infantry,  one  regiment  of 
cavalry,  one  brigade  (two  regiments),  of  field  artillery, 
one  field  battalion  of  signal  troops  (one  wire  company 
and  one  radio  company),  one  pioneer  battalion  of  en- 
gineers, sanitary  troops,  and  wagon  trains.  The 
strength  of  an  infantry  division  as  now  constituted 
(Feb.,  1916,)  is  22,665  officers  and  men,  7,447  animals, 
48  guns,  853  wagons,  and  40  machine  guns,  and  it  occu- 
pies 15.4  miles  of  road  on  the  march.  The  trains  com- 
prise field  trains,  carrying  camp  baggage  and  rations, 
a  supply  train,  an  ammunition  train,  a  sanitary  train 
(ambulances,  etc.),  and  an  engineer  train,  of  reserve 
intrenching  tools  for  the  infantry. 

The  Engineer  Train  is  composed  of  nine  wagons,  one 
for  each  regiment  of  Infantry  in  the  Division.  Each 
wagon  contains  the  following  equipment : 

Items.  Number.        Weight,  Pounds. 

Axes 26            130 

Crowbars 7               84 

Nails,  pounds 95 

Pick  Mattocks 149            671 

Sand  Bags 450             256 

Saws,  hand 13              21 

Saws,  two-man 13               52 

Shovels   298          1,200 

Wire,  pounds 25 

Carborundum  Grinding  Wheel,  1 

Saw  Set  for  hand  saws 1 

•Saw  Tool  for  two-man  saws.  . .  1 

Saw  Files  with  container 6 

Container  for  nails  and   edge 

tools    30 

Explosives  and  other  requisites, 

pounds    164 

Total,  2/765 


38  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE   ENGINEER 

A  cavalry  division  differs  from  that  of  the  infantry 
by  having  horse  artillery,  mounted  engineers,  and 
cavalry  regiments  instead  of  infantry.  Its  strength  is 
10,969  officers  and  men,  12,133  animals,  24  guns,  453 
wagons,  and  24  machine  guns.  It  occupies  11  miles  of 
road  on  the  march,  and  has  the  advantage  over  the  in- 
fantry of  greatly  increased  mobility. 

A  field  army  is  the  proper  command  of  a  lieutenant- 
general,  which  rank  is  not  at  present  authorized  in  the 
IT.  S.  Army.  It  would  comprise  two  or  more  infantry 
divisions,  one  or  more  cavalry  divisions,  and  additional 
troops,  namely,  a  regiment  of  heavy  artillery,  a  regi- 
ment of  mountain  artillery  (depending  upon  the 
nature  of  the  country),  a  ponton  battalion  of  engine- 
ers, and  an  aero  squadron  of  signal  troops.  There  are 
also  required  additional  transportation,  officers,  enlist- 
ed men,  and  civilian  clerks. 

The  mobilization,  equipment,  transportation  and 
supply  of  such  a  force  is  a  task  that  calls  for  organiz- 
ing ability  of  the  highest  order.  Each  commander 
holds  his  subordinates  responsible,  not  only  for  the 
actions  of  their  commands,  but  for  their  proper  in- 
struction, discipline  and  all  that  pertains  to  their  effi- 
ciency. He,  in  turn,  is  responsible  to  his  superiors  for 
the  state  of  his  own  command.  Duties  devolving  upon 
an  officer  may  be  assigned  by  him  to  subordinates,  but 
his  responsibility  for  the  proper  performance  of  this 
duty  does  not  cease.  Responsibility  cannot  be  trans- 
ferred. 

Upon  the  company  commander  probably  falls  the 
greatest  burden,  as  he  comes  into  direct  contact  with 
the  men,  and  is  subject  to  all  the  annoyances  of  keep- 
ing them  in  order  and  in  a  state  of  efficiency.  He  is 
charged  with  the  preparation  of  the  raw  material,  as 
well  as  its  effective  use  in  the  field. 

The  lieutenants  are  his  main  reliance  in  carrying 
on  the  work  of  instruction.  They  drill  the  company. 


MILITARY    ORGANIZATION  39 

hold  schools  for  the  men  and  non-commissioned  officers, 
inspect  equipment  and  quarters,  take  the  company  at 
routine  formations,  and  try  in  every  way  to  assist  the 
captain  and  leave  him  free  for  the  administrative  work. 
Every  lieutenant  should  be  capable  of  commanding  the 
company,  not  only  as  a  precaution  against  the  absence 
of  the  captain,  but  in  way  of  preparedness  for  war, 
when  our  forces  will  be  greatly  expanded,  and  many 
officers  of  existing  organizations  will  be  detailed  to 
higher  commands. 

The  major  is  relieved  of  many  of  the  details  and 
routine  work  that  annoy  a  company  commander,  but 
he  has  additional  responsibilities  which  probably  out- 
weigh the  advantages  of  his  position.  His  is  the  small- 
est command  which  will  operate  independently  in  the 
field,  and  questions  of  supply,  field  orders  and  the 
administration  of  his  battalion  will  more  than  occupy 
his  mind. 

And  so  on  as  one  goes  higher.  At  each  step  the  com- 
mander is  freed  from  some  of  the  detail,  but  his  re- 
sponsibilities are  commensurately  increased. 


V. 

MILITARY  ADMINISTRATION. 

Administration  is  army  government.  It  is,  however, 
usually  considered  as  separate  from  the  actual  work  of 
disciplining  and  training  an  organization.  The  term 
administration,  therefore,  may  be  said  to  include  the 
items  of  money  accountability,  property  accountability, 
supply,  company  books  and  records  and  correspond- 
ence. This  classification,  while  not  complete,  will  facil- 
itate explanation  of  the  duties  of  a  company  com- 
mander. 

Money  Accountability.  A  company  officer  of  volun- 
teer engineers  is  not  likely  to  become  a  disbursing  offi- 
cer, nor  to  be  charged  with  the  custody  of  public  funds. 
However,  a  few  rules  as  to  the  handling  of  financial 
accounts  of  a  minor  character  will  not  be  amiss. 

A  safe  rule  is  that  no  property  is  to  be  purchased 
nor  funds  expended  without  the  sanction  of  higher 
authority,  usually  the  Adjutant  General  of  the  De- 
partment, to  whom  application  must  be  made  through 
military  channels.  A  citation  of  this  authority  must 
accompany  the  voucher  when  presented  for  payment. 

Except  in  case  of  emergency,  or  to  provide  food  for 
his  men  when  traveling  under  orders,  an  officer  should 
not  make  cash  purchases  of  supplies  or  material,  ex- 
pecting reimbursement  later.  The  person  from  whom 
such  material  was  purchased  must  submit  a  voucher  (a 
creditor's  claim  for  payment),  in  duplicate,  upon  the 
face  of  which  the  purchasing  officer  certifies  that  the 
articles  were  received  or  services  rendered  as  specified. 
The  voucher  is  then  forwarded  to  the  disbursing  offi- 
cer for  payment.  The  voucher  must  bear  the  follow- 
ing certificate  signed  by  the  creditor : 

40 


MILITARY    ADMINISTRATION  41 

1 '  I  certify  that  the  above  account  is  correct  and  just, 
and  that  payment  therefor  has  not  been  received. ' ' 

JOHN  DOE. 

Only  the  original  and  not  the  duplicate  is  thus  certi- 
fied. An  officer  should  provide  himself  with  the  proper 
blank  voucher  forms  for  use  in  such  transactions. 

When  expenses  are  incurred  in  traveling  or  in  an 
emergency,  a  voucher  must  be  submitted  for  the  proper 
mileage  in  case  of  travel,  or  for  the  items  of  expendi- 
ture in  case  of  reimbursement.  Receipts  for  all  items 
must  accompany  vouchers  for  reimbursement  and 
travel  orders  must  be  attached  to  mileage  vouchers. 
The  officer  must  certify,  as  payee,  that  the  travel  was 
performed  as  per  the  attached  order  and  was  necessary 
in  the  military  service. 

An  officer  assigned  to  any  duty  which  may  involve 
financial  accountability  must  familiarize  himself  with 
the  Army  Regulations  as  pertaining  to  disbursements. 

Property  Accountability.  All  public  property  is  of 
two  classes :  expendable  and  non-expendable. 

Expendable  supplies  are  those  which  are  consumed, 
as  fuel,  forage  and  rations;  those  which  are  used  in 
works,  as  spikes,  wire,  bolts  and  sand  bags ;  and  those 
which  are  frequently  broken  or  worn  out  in  use,  as  tent 
pins  and  axe  handles. 

Non-expendable  property  consists  of  tentage,  arms, 
equipment,  tools,  etc.  Such  articles,  when  worn  out, 
cannot  be  thrown  away,  but  must  be  submitted  for  the 
action  of  an  inspector  appointed  for  this  purpose.  If 
found  unserviceable  the  property  is  condemned  by  him 
and  destroyed  in  his  presence,  and  the  accountable  offi- 
cer is  relieved  of  accountability  therefor,  upon  the  in- 
spector's certificate,  approved  by  higher  authority. 

When  property  is  lost  or  damaged  through  other 
than  fair  wear  and  tear  in  the  service,  the  accountable 
officer  at  once  makes  application  to  higher  authority 


42  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE  ENGINEER 

for  a  Board  of  Survey,  which  may  consist  of  one  or 
more  disinterested  officers.  This  Board  investigates 
the  causes  of  loss  or  damage,  examines  witnesses,  and 
endeavors  to  fix  the  responsibility.  Upon  its  recom- 
mendation, approved  by  higher  authority,  the  account- 
able officer  may  be  relieved,  or  held  for  the  value  of  the 
property,  in  which  latter  case  the  responsible  officer 
must  reimburse  the  Government  for  the  amount  of  the 
loss  or  damage  as  fixed  by  the  Board  of  Survey.  An 
accountable  officer  not  satisfied  with  the  findings  of  a 
Board  of  Survey  may  appeal  to  the  Department  Com- 
mander, whose  action  is  final. 

All  property  is  obtained  by  issue  upon  requisition. 
A  requisition  is  a  statement  of  property  required  and 
the  use  to  which  it  will  be  put.  It  must  be  submitted 
on  the  prescribed  forms  and  must  bear  a  certificate 
to  the  effect  that  the  property  is  necessary  in  the  mili- 
tary service.  The  issuing  officer,  at  the  arsenal  or 
depot,  invoices  the  property  to  the  organization  supply 
officer,  who  must  receipt  for  it  and  account  for  each 
item  upon  periodical  returns,  which  are  complete 
statements  of  the  property  on  hand  at  the  date  of  the 
previous  return,  that  received  during  the  period,  that 
disposed  of  during  the  period,  and  the  amount  on  hand. 
An  accountable  officer  may,  upon  memorandum  re- 
ceipt, issue  property  to  another  officer,  who  thus  be- 
comes responsible  for  the  property  so  issued.  He  ren- 
ders no  returns,  but  must  produce  the  property  upon 
demand.  An  accountable  officer,  therefore,  is  also  the 
responsible  officer  only  when  the  property  is  actually 
in  his  possession. 

Accountability  for  expendable  supplies  is  termin- 
ated by  the  receipt  of  the  officer  to  whom  they  are  is- 
sued for  use,  or  in  some  cases,  by  certificate  of  ex- 
penditure. 

Property  pertaining  to  one  bureau  must  be  account- 
ed for  on  the  return  to  the  chief  of  that  bureau.  For 
instance,  property  issued  by  the  Engineer  Depart- 


MILITARY    ADMINISTRATION 


43 


ment  must  not  be  taken  up  on  Quartermaster  or  Ord- 
nance returns. 

In  general  orders  of  the  War  Department,  accessible 
at  every  army  post,  are  published  lists  of  property 
which  constitute  the  authorized  equipment  of  each 
organization.  A  booklet  published  by  the  War  Depart- 
ment, entitled  "Engineer  Unit  Accountability  Equip- 
ment Manual/7  contains  complete  information  as  to 
Engineer  equipment. 

Supply.  The  question  of  supply,  as  it  pertains  to 
the  company  in  the  field,  is  merely  a  matter  of  draw- 
ing forage,  clothing  and  rations  from  the  nearest  quar- 
termaster. It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  many  volun- 
teers at  the  Spanish  War  mobilization  camps  went  hun- 
gry simply  because  their  commanders  did  not  know 
how  to  draw  rations. 

Form  I  illustrates  the  ration  return  used  by  the  U. 
S.  Army.  Orders  are  usually  issued  from  headquar- 
ters as  to  the  period  for  which  rations  are  to  be  drawn. 
The  first  return  submitted,  therefore,  shows  the 
strength  of  the  command  and  the  number  of  days, 
which  include  the  limiting  dates.  Thus  Sept.  1-5  indi- 
cates a  five-day  period.  For  a  company  of  164  men, 
therefore,  5  X  164  =  820  rations  are  required. 


Ration  Return  of-  .cT* 

At....<£(Z«$<2 — I 

No,  of  days— -£. — ,  persons  present. 


Additions.... 


,  deductions™.  ........  2.Q. 


,  1II7,IU«2WL2K2L~,  1917- 

,  No,  of  rations 


net  corrections  _ .-. 


No,  emergency  rations  required.-. 


Other  issues  required,  quantities  actually  required  within  regulation  allowance;       (No,  of  animals 


SOAP. 

CANDLES. 
ISSUE 

SKKS: 

MATCHES. 

TOIIET 
PAPER. 

.ALT.-OCK. 

roH^t. 

FtOUR  FOR 

TOWELS. 

ice 

u». 

LM. 

LM. 

•oxcs. 

PKO.. 

t»«. 

DAL*. 

US, 

MO. 

LM. 

, 

FORM   I.      RATION   RETURN — FACE 


44  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


THIS  CERTIFICATE  AND  APPBOTA1  COYEB  THE  ISSUES  INDICATED  0»  THE  BEYEBSB  SIDE  HEREOF. 

/  Cer«/i,that  this  Ration  Return  is  correct  and  that  the  last  regular  issue  of  rations  was  made  hy  Z/-*5»/_'   _ 
-      J^A&XaL-jZLjSJa&A.  ------  Quartermaster  •Ut^fla^tZ^tf&a^M&^&^L.  to  Include 

date  of.  ----  U^OX^S,  ----  I9j^_  that  the  emergency  rations  entered  (if  any)  are  required  for  the  enlisted  men 

of  my  command,  and  the  money  value  of  all  previously  drawn  and  improperly  opened  or  lost  has  been  charged  agansttn" 
persons  respons.ble;  that  the  civil  employees  for  whom  rations  are  required  (if  any)  are  entitled  thereto  under  the  regula- 
tions, and  that  the  articles,  other  than  rations,  above  requested  are  necessary  for  the  public  service 


Approved  and  ordered  issued.    The  total  rations  required  agree  with  the  morning  reports,  and  the  quantities  of  other 
ticles  ordered  issued  are  necessary  In  the  public  service  and  within  the  regulation  allowance. 


pany.  Troop,  or  Battery,  a  Detachment,  ClrU  Employee,  etc. 

FORM  I.   RATION  RETURN — BACK 

Let  us  suppose  that  on  Sept.  2d,  after  rations  have 
been  drawn  for  the  five  days,  five  men  report  sick  and 
are  sent  to  the  hospital.  They  leave  after  breakfast,  so 
take  two  meals  at  the  hospital,  which  thus  receives 
credit  for  their  rations  on  this  date.  The  company  has 
therefore  drawn  6  X  4  =  20  rations  too  many  for  the 
five-day  period.  But  on  Sept.  4th,  before  supper,  six 
men  from  a  signal  detachment  are  assigned  to  the  com- 
pany for  rations.  They  have  one  meal  on  the  4th,  for 
which  the  company  receives  no  credit,  but  they  are 
charged  with  a  full  ration  on  the  5th.  On  the  6th,  ra- 
tions are  drawn  for  the  period  Sept.  6-10.  The  five  men 
are  still  in  the  hospital,  and  the  signalmen  are  still  at- 
tached, so  the  ration  strength  of  the  company  is  164  — 
5  -[-  6  =  165,  which,  multiplied  by  the  number  of  days 
for  which  drawing  rations,  gives  165  X  5  =  825  ra- 
tions. 

825 
Additions..  .  .     6     (Six  signalmen,  one  day.) 


831 
Deductions...   20     (Five  men  in  hospital,  .4  days.) 


811= Total  rations  required. 


MILITARY    ADMINISTRATION  45 

The  quantities  which  may  be  drawn  of  ice,  candles, 
and  other  supplies  shown  at  the  bottom  of  the  ration 
return  are  listed  in  the  Subsistence  Manual. 

A  detachment  in  the  field,  losing  track  of  its  own  or- 
ganization, may  report  to  the  nearest  command  for  ra- 
tions. Their  own  command  carries  a  deduction  or 
minus,  during  their  absence,  and  the  organization  with 
which  they  mess  carries  a  plus,  or  addition,  during 
their  presence.  Many  a  volunteer  has  gone  supperless 
to  bed  through  lack  of  knowledge  of  this  provision. 

The  clothing  and  equipment  required  by  the  individ- 
ual soldier  is  listed  in  general  orders,  which  also  give 
the  bureau  by  which  these  articles  are  issued.  Each 
soldier  upon  enlisting  draws  a  complete  outfit  of  cloth- 
ing, not  to  exceed  in  value  the  amount  of  his  initial 
allowance.  He  also  has  a  running  allowance  of  so  much 
per  day,  which  is  supposed  to  provide  for  renewals. 
Clothing  required  in  excess  of  these  allowances  may  be 
drawn  by  the  soldier,  but  the  excess  cost  is  stopped  out 
of  his  pay  when  his  accounts  are  balanced  at  stated 
periods.  Any  unexpended  clothing  allowance  may  be 
drawn  in  cash  upon  his  discharge  from  the  service. 

The  captain  is  responsible  for  the  proper  outfitting 
of  his  command,  and  he  is  specifically  charged  with  per- 
sonal supervision  over  the  fit  of  his  men 's  shoes. 

Clothing  drawn  by  a  soldier  is  marked  by  his  name, 
and  becomes  his  personal  property,  but  it  cannot  be 
sold.  Severe  penalties  are  visited  upon  both  seller  and 
buyer  in  such  a  transaction,  even  when  the  latter  is  a 
civilian. 

Company  Books  and  Records.  The  principal  report 
rendered  by  a  company  commander  is  one  showing  the 
state  of  the  command  and  the  status  of  each  man.  This 
is  known  as  the  Morning  Report,  and  must  be  submit- 
ted daily.  It  consists  of  two  blank  pages,  on  the  first 
of  which  is  entered  under  each  date  the  number  of  offi- 
cers and  men  of  each  grade  present  for  duty,  present 


46 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


on  extra  duty,  special  duty,  sick  in  quarters,  and  in 
arrest  or  confinement.  There  is  also  entered  the  total 
number  absent,  and  the  aggregate  strength  of  the  com- 
mand. Any  man  drawing  rations  with  the  company  is 
carried  as  present,  otherwise  as  absent.  Thus  men 
absent  without  leave,  with  leave  (on  pass  or  furlough) 
on  detached  service,  sick  in  hospital,  or  in  confinement 
where  prisoners  are  not  rationed  with  their  commands, 
are  carried  as  absent. 

On  opposite  page  are  entered  the  changes  only.  Thus 
on  the  18th  (Form,  II  below),  Private  Sweeney  is  still 
absent  without  leave  and  Corporal  Kelly  is  still  absent 


MORNING     REPORTS 


FOR  THE  MONTH  OF 


FORM    II.       MORNING   REPORTS — COVER 


c^mjcUnlc., fanj.™  ud  buck- 


3*L 


w 


FORM    II.       MORNING    REPORTS — LEFT-HAND    PAGE 


MILITARY    ADMINISTRATION  47 


75tb/  +&  -23 

FORM    II.       MORNING    REPORTS — RIGHT-HAND    PAGE 

with  leave,  so  there  is  no  change  in  the  status  of  the 
company,  and  no  remarks  are  necessary.  Rations  are 
here  supposed  to  have  been  drawn  for  five  days,  Sep- 
tember 16-20,  for  the  full  enlisted  strength  of  the  com- 
mand, 164  (officers  not  rationed) .  Hence  two  men  are 
absent  for  four  days  and  2X4  =  8  rations  must  be 
deducted  from  the  next  ration  return. 

On  the  19th,  seven  men  go  absent,  as  indicated,  three 
without  leave,  one  to  the  hospital,  and  three  upon  de- 
tached service  in  the  field.  One  man  is  placed  in  con- 
finement, but  rationed  with  the  company.  The  deduc- 
tions for  the  two  days,  September  19-20,  are  therefore 
2  X  7  =  14  rations.  Private  Sweeney  returns  from 
absence  without  leave  to  duty,  and  for  the  two  days 
there  is  an  addition  of  two  rations. 

On  the  20th,  one  man  is  discharged.  Deduction,  one 
ration.  Three  men  return  from  absence  without  leave 
and  one  enlists.  Additions,  4  rations.  Total  deduc- 
tions, 23  ;  total  additions,  6.  Strength  at  beginning  of 
next  period,  September  21-25,  160  (4  officers  not  ra- 
tioned and  4  men  absent.  Rations  required  for  next 
period  (5  X  160)  +  6  —  23  =  783. 

In  the  back  of  the  Morning  Report  is  space  for  a 
chronological  record  of  general  events. 


4.8  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

Unless  the  morning  report  and  ration  return  of  a 
company  are  correctly  kept  and  check  one  another,  the 
men  are  likely  to  fare  badly. 

Each  morning,  at  "First  Sergeant's  Call,"  the  first 
sergeant  proceeds  to  next  superior  headquarters  and 
turns  in  his  morning  report,  previously  signed  by  the 
company  commander.  Ration  returns,  on  the  days 
when  due,  are  also  turned  in  to  these  headquarters  to 
be  approved  and  forwarded  to  the  supply  officer. 

The  sergeant-major  of  the  battalion  or  regiment  pre- 
pares from  the  company  reports  a  Consolidated  Morn- 
ing Report,  showing  the  state  of  the  entire  command. 

At  "Issue  Call/'  the  company  quartermaster  ser- 
geant, accompanied  by  enough  help  to  carry  back  the 
rations,  proceeds  to  the  storehouse  and  receives  the  ra- 
tions for  his  company,  receipting  therefor  to  the  post  or 
regimental  quartermaster  sergeant.  Rations  will  prob- 
ably be  issued  for  only  one  or  two  days  of  the  period 
for  which  a  return  was  submitted,  as  there  are  better 
facilities  at  the  store-house  for  keeping  provisions. 

In  garrison  or  permanent  camp,  a  company  may 
save  on  their  ration  allowance,  drawing  the  unexpend- 
ed balance  in  cash,  which  thus  forms  the  basis  of  the 
company  fund.  This  fund  is  also  augmented  by  divi- 
dends from  the  Post  Exchange,  or  store,  in  which  the 
company  may  own  stock,  and  from  the  post  bakery,  as 
savings  on  bread  materials. 

The  Sick  Report  is  made  out  only  when  necessary. 
At ' '  Sick  Call ' '  in  the  morning,  the  men  who  are  ailing 
report,  and  an  entry  is  made  for  each,  showing  the  date, 
the  man's  name  and  grade,  the  time  of  reporting  sick, 
and  whether  in  the  captain 's  judgment  the  sickness  is 
in  line  of  duty,  i.  e.,  due  to  natural  causes  occurring  in 
the  ordinary  performance  of  duty,  or  not  in  line  of 
duty,  due  to  the  carelessness,  neglect  or  misconduct  of 
the  soldier.  The  men  are  then  sent  to  the  surgeon,  who 
examines  them  and  marks  after  their  names  duty,  light 


MILITARY    ADMINISTRATION  49 

duty,  quarters,  or  hospital,  as  the  case  may  demand. 
He  also  enters  a  remark  as  to  whether  the  sickness  or 
injury  was  in  line  of  duty.  His  judgment  in  this  mat- 
ter supersedes  and  may  reverse  that  of  the  captain. 

The  proper  classification  of  the  disability,  whether 
or  not  in  line  of  duty,  is  of  importance  as  affecting  any 
claim  that  may  be  made  later  for  a  pension. 

The  Duty  Roster  is  a  list  of  the  men  in  the  company 
liable  for  any  particular  duty,  usually  for  guard.  A 
separate  roster  must  be  kept  for  each  grade,  sergeants, 
corporals,  and  privates.  The  first  sergeant  is  notified 
each  day  as  to  the  number  of  non-commissioned  officers 
and  privates  that  will  be  required  for  guard  the  fol- 
lowing day.  The  roster  shows  the  last  similar  duty  per- 
formed by  each  man,  and  those  longest  off  duty  are  de- 
tailed. 

The  Order  File  is  a  file  of  all  orders  received  or  issued 
by  the  company,  including  General  Orders  of  the  War 
Department,  Post,  and  Regiment  or  Battalion,  and 
such  Special  Orders  as  affect  the  company  or  refer  to 
its  personnel. 

General  Orders  are  such  as  affect  the  entire  command 
of  the  officer  issuing  them.  For  example,  the  follow- 
ing is  a  general  order : 

Headquarters  2nd  Engineers,  U.  S.  V. 

Camp  Columbia,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  18,  1917. 
General  Orders, 
No.  14. 

1.     This  command  will  form  to-morrow,  Sept.  19, 
1917,  at  8 :00  A.  M.,  in  service  uniform  with  field  equip- 
ment, for  inspection  by  the  commanding  officer. 
By  command  of  Col.  Jones, 
Henry  C.  Ross, 

Capt.,  2nd  Engrs.,  U.  S.  V., 
Adjutant. 


50  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

The  following  is  a  special  order : 

Headquarters  2nd  Engineers,  U.  S.  V. 

Camp  Columbia,  N.  Y.,  Sept.  20,  1917. 
1.     1st  Class  Private  William  Roberts,  Company  H. 
2nd  Engineers,  IT.  S.  V.,  is  detailed  as  headquarters 
clerk  and  will  report  to  the  adjutant  for  duty. 
By  command  of  Col.  Jones, 
Henry  C.  Ross, 

Capt.,  2nd  Engrs.,  U.  S.  V. 
Adjutant. 

The  Company  Fund  Book  shows  all  receipts  into  and 
expenditures  from  the  company  fund. 

The  Company  Small  Arms  Practice  Record  is  a  loose- 
leaf  book  or  a  card  file  containing  the  record  practice 
and  qualifications  for  each  soldier  in  small  arms  firing. 

The  Descriptive  List  is  a  small  pamphlet  of  twelve 
pages,  of  the  size  of  a  folded  letter,  and  containing 
blank  spaces  for  his  complete  description,  military  rec- 
ord, including  previous  service,  service  as  non-com- 
missioned officer,  markmanship,  horsemanship,  battles, 
wounds,  convictions  by  court-martial,  etc.,  and  for  his 
accounts,  including  deposits  with  the  paymaster,  cloth- 
ing drawn,  and  a  record  of  final  settlem/ents  at  dis- 
charge. When  a  soldier  is  transferred  to  another  or- 
ganization or  post,  even  if  temporarily,  his  descriptive 
list  accompanies  him. 

The  Correspondence  Book  and  Document  File  will  be 
considered  under  the  head  of 

Correspondence.  The  specimen  letter  (Form  III, 
below)  shows  the  correct  form  for  a  military  communi- 
cation. On  the  upper  fold  of  the  letter  is  written  the 
place  and  the  date,  and  the  words 


MILITARY    ADMINISTRATION  51 


COMPANY   "D" 

CORPS    OF    ENGINEERS,   N.  G.  N.  Y 


NEW  YORK  eiTV,  Sept.  11.  1916. 

FROM  -  Commanding  Officer,  Co.  D,  22nd  Corps  of  Engineer*,  N.  G.  H,  T. 
TO:-  Comnanding  Officer,  22nd  Corps  of  Engineers,  N.  0.  N.  Y. 
SUBJECT:-  Mustering  Private  Henry,  Co.  b,  with  Co.  J. 


1.  Permission  Is  requested  to  muter  Private  John  C.  Henry,  of  thl» 
company,  with  Company  J,  22nd  C.  of  S.  ,  on  Sept.  26,  1916. 

2.  Private  Henry  wae  absent  on  the  night  of  Sept.  4,  1916,  and  oould 
not  be  mustered  with  this  organization. 


Captain,  Corps  of  Engineers,  K.  C.  fl.  Y. 

1st  Ind. 

Hdqrs  22nd  C.  of  S. ,  Sept.  15,  1916  -  to  C.  0.,  Co  D. 

1.  Returned  by  direction  of  Col.  Smith. 

2.  Information  Is  requested  as  to  the  reason  for  Private  Henry's  absence 
from  the  muster  of  his  company  on  Sept.  4,  1916. 


Capt.  Corps  of  Kngrs,  V.  0.  "U.  Y», 
Adjutant. 

2nd  Ind. 
Co  D,  22nd  C  of  E.,  Sept.  18,  1916  -  to  C.  0.,  22nd  C.  of  15., 

1  Returned. 

2.  Private  Henry's  absence  on  Sept.  4,  1916  was  due  to  an  Injury  to  his 
foot,  caused  by  his  dropping  a  heavy  casting  upon  It  In  the  shop  where  he  It 
employed. 

3.  Private  Henry  was,  from  Sept.  1  -  10,  1916,  under  the  care  of  a  phyt- 
ician,  whoso  certificate  is  inclosed. 

IP 

(1  Inol.J  Capt.,  C.  of  "£.,  Cmndg.  Co.  J). 

3rd  Ind. 
Hdqrs  22nd  C.  of  S.,  Sept.  18,  1916  -  to  C.  0.,  Co.  D. 

1.  Approved. 

2.  The  return  of  this  paper  Is  requested.  By  direction  of  Col.  Smith. 

(R_& 
Capt.,  C.  of  E.,  Adjt. 

(Seoond  Sheet) 


4th  Ind. 
Co.  D,.  22nd  C.  of  B.,  Sept.  20,  1916  -  to  C.  D.,  22nd  C.  of  8. 

1.  Returned. 

2.  Noted. 


Capt.  C.  of  R.,  Cnnd*.  Co.  B 

(Rubber  Stamp) 

Rec'd  back  Hdqrs  22nd  C  of  B  9-20-1916. 

FORM  III.      MILITARY  COMMUNICATION 


52  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

"From,"  €[To,'[  and  "Subject."  In  filling  out  a 
heading,  designations  of  officers  rather  than  their 
names,  should  be  used,  thus :  From:  Commanding  Offi- 
cer, Co.  H,  2nd  Engineers,  U.  S.  V. 

If  a  letter  is  to  go  higher  than  the  next  superior 
headquarters,  it  is  addressed  to  the  officer  who  will  take 
action,  adding  under  his  name  "(Through  Military 
Channels)  "  and  sent  to  the  next  superior  headquar- 
ters to  be  forwarded. 

The  subject  should  not  contain  more  than  ten  words, 
and  no  letter  must  refer  to  more  than  one  subject. 

The  heading  as  indicated,  and  nothing  else,  must 
occupy  the  top  fold. 

The  body  of  the  letter  follows,  without  salutation, 
the  paragraphs  numbered,  and  a  margin  of  one  inch 
at  the  left.  If  written  upon  a  typewriter,  paragraphs 
are  single  spaced,  and  separated  by  a  double  space. 
The  signature  follows  the  body  of  the  letter  without 
closing  expressions,  such  as  "Yours  respectfully."  If 
the  grade  and  position  of  an  officer  are  given  in  the 
heading,  they  are  not  repeated  in  the  signature. 

Indorsements  follow  the  signature  in  order,  num- 
bered consecutively.  They  must  indicate  the  organiza- 
tion by  whom  sent,  the  headquarters  or  officer  ad- 
dressed, and,  if  transmitting  indorsements  only,  may 
simply  contain  the  word  t '  Forwarded ' '  in  their  body. 

It  is  customary  in  replying  to  a  letter  to  return  the 
original  by  indorsement,  instead  of  writing  a  second 
letter.  If  inclosures  are  sent,  their  number  is  indicated 
at  the  left  of  the  letter,  opposite  the  signature. 

Two  carbon  copies  of  a  letter  are  made,  one  of  which 
is  retained  by  the  sending  officer,  the  other,  signed  by 
initials  only,  or  by  a  typewritten  signature,  is  forward- 
ed with  the  letter.  This  is  for  the  files  of  the  receiving 
officer  if  the  letter  is  returned  by  indorsement  or  for- 
warded to  a  higher  headquarters.  Press  copies  are  no 
longer  used. 


MILITARY    ADMINISTRATION  53 

In  mailing,  the  top  fold  is  folded  back,  and  the  bot- 
tom, fold  up,  covering  the  body  of  the  letter.  The  top 
fold,  with  the  heading,  is  therefore  left  on  the  outside 
of  the  folded  letter,  taking  the  place  of  the  former 
briefing. 

In  the  Correspondence  Book  is  kept  a  record  of  the 
writer  of  each  letter  sent  or  received,  the  person  or 
office  addressed,  the  date  forwarded,  a  brief  of  the  con- 
tents, and  a  record  of  the  action  taken.  The  form  let- 
ter shown  would  have  the  following  entry : 

53 

C.  0.  Co.  D,  22nd  C.  of  E.,  N.  G.  N.  Y. 

to  C.  0.  22nd  C.  of  E.,  9-11-16. 
Eequests  permission  to  muster  Pvt. 
Henry  with  Company  J,  9-25-16. 
Rec 'aback  9-18-16. 
To  C.  0.  22nd  C.  of  E.,  9-18-16. 
Rec'd  back  9-21-16,  Approved. 
Noted  and  returned. 

This  would  be  cross-indexed  under  the  headings  mus- 
ter and  Henry.  A  copy  of  the  letter  is  numbered  seri- 
ally to  correspond  with  number  of  the  entry  in  the  Cor- 
respondence Book,  the  indorsements  relating  to  the  ac- 
tion taken  are  copied  upon  it,  and  the  copy  is  filed  in 
the  Document  File. 


VI. 

ENGINEER  TROOPS  IN  THE  FIELD. 

DUTIES. 

According  to  the  Official  Bulletin  of  the  General 
Staff,  U.  S.  Army,  Vol.  I,  No.  4,  December,  1914,  the 
duty  of  engineer  troops  in  the  field  is  to  apply  engineer- 
ing science  to  the  emergencies  of  modern  warfare  in 
order  to  protect  and  assist  troops,  to  ameliorate  the 
conditions  under  which  they  are  serving,  to  facilitate 
locomotion  and  communication,  and  whenever  the  occa- 
sion requires  to  act  as  purely  combatant  troops. 

Captain  Thomas  M.  Robins,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U. 
S.  Army,  in  his  lecture  to  the  United  Engineering  So- 
cieties upon  ' '  Organization  and  Duties  of  Engineers  in 
War ' '  used  the  following  apt  comparison :  ' i  An  army 
in  the  field  is  a  machine  which  may  be  worn  out  and 
rendered  unserviceable  by  interior  as  well  as  exterior 
friction.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  engineer  to  lubricate  this 
machine  and  at  the  same  time  to  throw  sledge  hammers 
into  the  gears  and  cogs  of  the  enemy  ?s  machine,  to  pre- 
vent its  working  as  he  wishes. " 

In  the  performance  of  these  duties  engineers  are 
trained  and  equipped  to  supplement  or  amplify  by 
scientific  measures  the  efforts  of  combatant  troops  in 
the  services  enumerated  below  and  such  other  special 
services  of  an  engineering  nature  as  may  arise  and  are 
beyond  the  technical  training  of  combatant  troops,  or 
such  as  require  the  use  of  engineering  implements 
and  material  not  supplied  to  combatant  troops. 

Scope  of  Services. 

(a)  The  service  of  reconnaissance,  including  tac- 
tical reconnaissance,  engineering  reconnaissance,  sur- 
veying, mapping,  and  sketching,  panoramic  sketching> 
photography,  drafting,  and  map  reproduction. 

54 


ENGINEER   TROOPS   IN   THE   FIELD  55 

(b)  The  service  of  castramentation,  including  the 
selection,  laying  out  and  preparation  of  camps,  the 
reconnaissance  and  municipal  and  sanitary  engineer- 
ing incident  thereto,  and  the  installation,  operation 
and  maintenance  of  water-supply  systems. 

(c)  The  service  of  fortifications,  pertaining  both 
to  the  attack  and  the  defense  and  including  the  selec- 
tion of  defensive  positions  when  out  of  the  presence  of 
the  enemy ;  rectification  of  and  assistance  in  the  selec- 
tion of  such  positions  in  the  presence  of  the  enemy ;  the 
location,  design  and  construction  of  the  more  import- 
ant field  works;  assistance  in  and  supervision  of  the 
construction  of  hasty  defenses  wherever  possible ;  the 
supply  of  tools  and  materials ;  and  the  reconnaissance, 
demolitions,   water-supply  and  communications  inci- 
dent thereto. 

(d)  The  service  of  sieges,  pertaining  both  to  the  at- 
tack and  defense  and  including  the  selection  and  loca- 
tion of  defensive  lines,  lines  of  investment  and  siege 
works,  the  construction  of  saps,  mines  and  counter- 
mines ;  the  operation  of  search-lights ;  preparation  for 
and  assistance  in  attacks,  counter  attacks  and  sorties ; 
organization  of  captured  points;  and  the  supply  of 
tools  and  materials. 

(e)  The  service  of  demolitions,  including  the  car- 
rying out  of  all  work  of  this  nature  authorized  by  the 
commander  and  not  within  the  scope  of  other  troops. 

(f )  The  service  of  battlefield  illumination,  includ- 
ing the  supply  and  operation  of  search-lights  and  other 
means  of  battlefield  illumination. 

(g)  The  service  of  general  construction,  including 
the  location,  design  and  construction  of  wharves,  piers, 
landings,  storehouses,  hospitals  and  other  structures  of 
general  utility  in  the  theater  of  operations. 

(h)  The  service  of  communications,  including  the 
construction,  maintenance  and  repair  of  roads,  ferries, 
bridges  and  incidental  structures;  the  selection  and 


56  PREPAREDNESS   AND  THE  ENGINEER 

preparation  of  fords;  the  construction,  maintenance 
and  operation  of  railways  under  military  control,  and 
the  construction  and  operation  of  armored  trains. 

(i)  Special  services,  including  all  municipal,  sani- 
tary and  other  public  work  of  an  engineering  nature 
which  may  be  required  in  territory  under  military 
control. 

The  services  in  the  above  list  are  executed  under  the 
supervision  of  engineer  officers  by  engineer  troops,  by 
details  from  other  troops,  by  civilian  labor  or  by  any 
combination  of  these  means  as  the  particular  circum- 
stances may  require. 

Time  is  usually  all  important  and  labor  is  plentiful, 
and  wherever  the  labor  of  other  troops  can  be  profit- 
ably used  such  troops  should  be  provided  promptly  and 
used  freely,  the  tools  of  the  engineer  train  being 
brought  up  for  this  purpose. 

ORGANIZATION. 

The  engineer  troops  and  equipment  of  a  division 
consist  of  a  battalion  of  pioneers,  an  engineer  train  and 
such  proportion  of  the  ponton  battalion  as  may  be 
assigned  to  the  division. 

An  infantry  division  is  the  largest  complete  tactical 
unit  in  our  army.  It  is  made  up  of  forces  from  all 
arms  of  the  service  excepting  coast  artillery. 

The  pioneer  and  ponton  battalions  are  organized 
alike,  and  contain  approximately  500  men  each,  so 
that  they  form  about  three  per  cent,  of  the  total  forces, 
which  proportion  is  very  small  as  compared  with  other 
armies,  and  will  undoubtedly  have  to  be  doubled. 

The  proposed  reorganization  of  the  army  contem- 
plates engineer  regiments  of  two  battalions  (six  com- 
panies), about  1,000  men,  one  such  regiment  to  b? 
attached  to  each  division.  The  resulting  proportion 
of  engineers  to  combatant  troops  would  be  6  per  cent., 
which  agrees  very  well  with  foreign  practice. 


ENGINEER   TROOPS   IN   THE   FIELD  57 

An  engineer  company  consists  of  4  officers,  mounted, 
and  164  enlisted  men,  of  whom  24  are  mounted. 
The  organization  is  as  follows : 

1  captain,  mounted 

2  first  lieutenants,  mounted 
1  second  lieutenant,  mounted 
1  first  sergeant 

1  quartermaster  sergeant 

12  sergeants,  2  mounted 

18  corporals,  3  mounted 

2  cooks,  1  mounted 
2  musicians 

64  privates,  1st  class,  )  18  mounted 

64  privates,  2d  class     )  on  mules 

Only  a  small  number  of  men  from  each  company 
are  trained  for  photography,  surveying,  drafting,  de- 
molitions, operation  of  engines,  etc.,  but  practically 
all  of  the  company  are  trained  for  all  such  work  as 
roads,  fortifications,  bridges  and  mining. 

EQUIPMENT. 

The  following  is  the  combat  train  of  each  company : 
Two  wagons  containing  instruments,  tools,  tackle, 
explosives  and  supplies.  (Mainly  for  the  foot  troops 
of  the  company.)  Practically  identical  loads  on  each. 
Eight  pack  mules,  with  two  demolition  packs,  three 
packs  of  tools,  tackle  and  supplies,  and  three  packs  of 
grain,  rations,  additional  tools  or  explosives.  (Mainly 
for  the  mounted  detachment  of  the  company.)  It  will 
be  observed  that  each  company  is  so  organized  and 
equipped  that  it  can  provide  the  following  working 
parties : 

(a)  The  small  parties  necessary  for  demolitions, 
sketching,  mapping,  etc. 

(b)  A  mounted  detachment,   especially   provided 
for  work  at  a  distance  from  the  foot  portion  of  the 
company. 


58  PREPAREDNESS   AND  THE  ENGINEER 

(c)  Two  almost  identical  foot  detachments  of  from 
50  to  65  men.  In  addition  to  the  equipment  carried 
in  the  combat  trains  of  the  companies  there  is  the  fol- 
lowing equipment: 

(a)  Battalion  combat  train— 

1  wagon  (surveying,  drafting,  photo- 
graphic and  reconnaissance  equipment.) 

1  wagon  (blacksmith  and  map  reproduc- 
tion equipment). 

(b)  The  Engineer  Train,  9  wagons   (reserve  en- 
trenching tools  for  infantry),  carrying  the  following 
equipment. 

234  Axes  117  Hand  Saws 

63  Crowbars  117  Saws,  1  or  2  man 

900  Ibs.  Nails  2700  Shovels 

1350  Pick  Mattocks  225  Ibs.  Wire,  smooth 

4050  Sand  Bags  Tool  sharpeners,  etc. 

(c)  The  bridge  equipage  with  the  Field   Army, 
consisting  of  6  divisions   (1350  feet)    of  the  heavy 
equipage  and  3  divisions  (558  feet)  of  the  light  equip- 
age.   Divisional  engineer  troops  assist  in  handling  the 
equipage  assigned  to  the  division.    "Whenever  a  divi- 
sion is  in  action  alone  in  the  field  at  least  one  division 
of  bridge  equipage  should  be  assigned  to  it. 

DETAILED  DUTIES. 

On  the  March,  engineer  troops  verify,  correct,  and 
amplify  existing  maps  or  prepare  and  reproduce  road 
sketches  in  the  absence  of  other  maps.  They  examine 
routes  and  local  resources  with  a  view  to  their  utiliza- 
tion. They  mark  roads  and  furnish  guides  when  nec- 
essary. In  an  advance  they  remove  obstacles,  and  in 
a  retreat  they  place  obstacles  to  check  the  advance  of 
the  enemy.  They  execute  demolitions,  especially  in  a 
retreat,  and  destroy  materials,  stores,  and  natural  re- 
sources whenever  so  ordered.  They  prepare  roads, 
bridges,  fords,  and  ferries,  and  strengthen  structures, 


ENGINEER   TROOPS  IN  THE   FIELD  59 

make  repairs,  or  build  entirely  new  ways  of  communi- 
cation and  assist  the  artillery  and  heavy  vehicles  in 
difficult  places.  They  prepare  photographs  to  supple- 
ment reconnaissance  and  records. 

The  Advance.  Regardless  of  the  character  of  the 
march,  delays  are  always  to  be  expected  either  from 
the  enemy  and  his  activities  or  from  bad  roads,  acci- 
dents to  road  structures,  or  from  somie  other  cause, 
and  the  troops,  to  make  the  way  clear  and  expedite  the 
march,  ought,  unless  other  considerations  forbid,  to  be 
near  the  head  of  the  column  to  attack  the  obstruction 
as  soon  as  it  is  discovered  and  obviate  the  delay  inci- 
dent to  bringing  them  and  their  combat  train  up  from 
the  rear  along  a  road  encumbered  with  other  troops 
and  vehicles.  Therefore  a  working  unit  of  engineers, 
preferably  a  company,  should  be  at  the  head  of  the 
column  and  should  form  a  part  of  the  support  of  the 
advance  guard. 

The  Retreat.  In  a  retreat  there  is  always  the  pre- 
sumption of  a  pursuit  by  the  enemy,  and  the  disposi- 
tion of  the  engineers  might  well  be  about  as  follows 
for  a  division  marching  on  a  single  road: 

Battalion  (less  2  companies) ,  ahead  of  the  trains. 

1  company,  at  the  head  of  the  leading  troops. 

1  company,  as  part  of  the  rear  guard. 

This  disposition  is  merely  a  suggestion  and  not  a 
type  formation. 

The  duty  of  the  first  body  is  to  insure  that  the  road 
is  open  and  the  way  clear  and  that  of  the  second  to  see 
that  these  conditions  are  maintained.  The  duty  of  the 
third,  in  addition  to  assisting  in  the  conduct  of  the 
retreat,  is  to  delay  the  advance  of  the  pursuing  force 
by  placing  obstructions  along  the  route  or  routes  and 
by  actual  combat  when  necessary.  The  main  part  of 
this  company  will  be  with  the  reserve  of  the  rear  guard 
a,nd  will  prepare  bridges,  etc.,  for  demolition.  The 
mounted  detachment  will  be  with  but  ordinarily  will 


60  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE   ENGINEER 

not  form  a  part  of  the  rear  cavalry.  Their  function 
is  to  make  the  demolitions  after  all  the  troops  have 
passed,  and  then  by  means  of  their  mounts  rejoin  the 
rear  party  and  repeat  the  operation.  If  the  road  is 
to  be  obstructed  by  fallen  trees  and  other  such  ob- 
stacles, the  main  part  of  this  company  may  fall  farther 
to  the  rear  than  above  indicated. 

The  Attack.  In  the  attack,  the  engineers  reconnoiter 
for  and  facilitate  the  advance  of  the  other  troops  by 
repairing  and  constructing  roads,  bridges,  and  ferries, 
improving  fords,  and  making  clearings  to  facilitate 
communication  and  deployment.  Engineer  troops  ac- 
company the  attacking  line  for  the  purpose  of  destroy- 
ing and  clearing  away  obstacles,  destroying  hostile 
mines,  organizing  captured  positions,  and  for  destroy- 
ing guns,  works,  and  stores  which  can  not  be  held. 
They  assist  in  clearing  the  field  of  fire  for  the  artillery 
and  in  arranging  for  observation  of  fire,  including  the 
construction  of  high  observing  stations.  They  destroy 
or  blockade  ways  of  communication  to  guard  against 
flank  attacks.  They  supply  tools  to  troops  taking  up  a 
position  in  a  deliberate  attack  and  assist  in  the  prep- 
aration of  fortified  portions  of  the  line.  They  are 
specially  concerned  with  the  construction  of  support- 
ing points  to  check  temporary  reverses,  works  to  guard 
against  counter  attack  on  the  flanks,  and  works  of  gen- 
eral interest,  such  as  dressing  stations,  ways  of  com- 
munication, and  the  like.  They  give  assistance  to  the 
artillery  for  the  advance  preparation  of  new  positions, 
so  that  the  artillery  may  move  from  one  position  to 
another  with  the  least  loss  of  time.  They  operate 
searchlights  or  other  means  of  illumination  used  in 
night  attacks ;  they  mark  roads  and  trails  leading  along 
the  positions,  and,  if  necessary,  supply  guides;  they 
make  the  engineer  reconnaissance  to  locate  and  pro- 
cure tools  and  materials  and  otherwise  utilize  available 
local  resources  to  the  fullest  extent;  they  will  make 


ENGINEER  TROOPS   IN  THE  FIELD  61 

and  reproduce  such  position  and  place  sketches,  photo- 
graphic views  and  panoramic  sketches  of  hostile  lines 
as  may  be  practicable.  Engineer  troops  will  be  used 
on  the  firing  line  whenever  it  is  desirable  to  bring  all 
available  rifles  into  action,  or  when  their  position  is 
such  that  they  can  render  the  most  effective  service 
by  fire  action. 

The  combat  train  advances  with  the  companies  as 
far  and  as  rapidly  as  possible,  so  that  tools  and  sup- 
plies shall  always  be  near  at  hand;  but  they  should 
be  halted  off  the  road  when  they  can  no  longer  advance 
and  should  never  be  allowed  to  delay  the  advance  of 
the  troops. 

If  the  attack  encounter  fortified  positions,  the  engi- 
neers are  used  in  the  firing  line  to  destroy  obstacles  or 
mines,  to  handle  grenades,  to  accompany  and  assist  the 
brigade  commander  in  reconnaissance  of  the  hostile 
position,  and  assist  in  organizing  captured  positions 
against  counter  attacks. 

The  strength  of  the  enemy's  fortifications  will  de- 
termine the  rate  of  advance,  and  the  slower  the  advance 
the  greater  will  become  the  usefulness  of  the  engineer 
troops.  The  operation  of  searchlights  and  other  means 
of  battlefield  illumination  will  be  employed  in  pro- 
tracted attacks,  and  the  illumination  of  roads,  etc.,  will 
be  required. 

The  Defense.  On  the  defense  the  engineers  assist  in 
clearing  the  foreground,  placing  obstacles,  and  deter- 
mining and  marking  ranges,  and  are  specially  con- 
cerned in  the  construction  of  works  of  general  interest, 
including  dummy  trenches,  bomb  proof  and  splinter 
proof  overhead  covers,  screens,  dressing  stations,  ob- 
servation stations,  and  supporting  points.  They  assist 
in  preparing  woods,  houses,  and  villages  for  defense, 
and  in  repairing  damaged  works.  They  operate  search- 
lights and  other  means  of  illumination.  They  destroy 
or  blockade  ways  of  communication  and  destroy  stores 


62  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

and  other  resources  or  structures  that  may  be  useful 
to  the  enemy  and  are  certain  to  fall  into  his  hands. 
They  prepare  land  mines,  fougasses,  and  grenades. 
They  distribute  the  tools  to  troops  taking  up  positions, 
prepare  positions  fortified  in  advance  of  their  occupa- 
tion, and  supervise  civilian  working  parties  on  such 
lines.  As  in  the  attack,  they  improve  or  construct  roads 
and  other  ways  of  communication,  including  field  rail- 
ways, and  facilitate  the  movement  of  troops  and  sup- 
plies throughout  the  entire  position.  They  will  make 
such  sketches  and  reproduce  such  photographic  views 
as  may  be  practical.  They  make  the  engineer  recon- 
naissance to  locate  and  procure  tools  and  materials  and 
other  local  resources. 

Their  numbers  prohibit  them  from  doing  all  the 
clearing  or  all  the  entrenching,  even  if  such  were  other- 
wise desirable.  They  assist  in  laying  out  and  construct- 
ing the  trenches,  obstacles,  overhead  cover,  dummy 
trenches,  etc.,  and  in  clearing  the  foreground  and  con- 
cealing the  position. 

Sieges.  In  sieges  engineer  troops  have  the  same 
duties  as  in  an  attack  or  in  a  defense,  according  to 
whether  they  are  besieged  or  besieging.  They  have  also 
the  duties  required  of  them  in  camps,  and  are  specially 
charged  with  the  location  and  construction  of  siege 
batteries,  parallels,  approaches,  mines  and  counter- 
mines and  obstacles.  They  prepare  for  and  assist  in 
assaults  and  sorties,  destroy  obstacles,  hostile  mines 
and  works,  and  prepare  captured  positions  for  de- 
fense. 

Prior  to  assaults  or  night  attacks  the  ground  to  be 
passed  over  should  be  carefully  reconnoitered  and 
mapped,  if  practicable,  and  engineer  officers  should 
act  as  guides  to  the  attacking  troops.  The  columns 
should  be  accompanied  by  engineer  troops  with  the 
necessary  tools  and  equipment  to  assist  the  advance 
and  to  strengthen  any  position  captured. 


ENGINEER  TROOPS  IN  THE  FIELD  63 

In  Camp  (not  short  halts  or  bivouacs)  the  engineers 
lay  out  the  camp  and  make  the  necessary  surveys  or 
sketches  of  the  camp  and  outpost  and  reproduce  maps 
for  the  command.  They  prepare  and  mark  the  water- 
ing places  and  may  be  called  upon  to  install  the  water 
supply.  They  construct  the  main  drainage  system  for 
permanent  camps  and  other  works  of  sanitation  re- 
quiring special  skill  or  equipment.  They  assist  in  the 
construction  of  shelters.  When  the  camp  is  fortified 
the  engineer  troops  have  the  same  duties  as  in  a  de- 
fensive position.  They  carry  out  such  demolitions  as 
may  be  required.  They  repair  roads  and  bridges,  con- 
structing such  new  ones  as  may  be  required,  and  pre- 
pare the  terminal  facilities,  both  by  rail  and  water, 
and  mark  the  routes  of  communication  and  deployment 
and  construct  and  operate  portable  railways.  They 
construct  buildings  of  general  interest  and  such  other 
engineering  works  as  may  be  required  of  them.  They 
also  do  such  photographic  work  as  may  be  required, 
and  make  special  examination  of  the  terrain  with  a 
view  to  engineer  work  and  the  utilization  of  local 
resources. 

A  single  battalion  can  not  do  all  the  technical  work 
in  a  camp  as  rapidly  as  its  completion  is  desired,  but 
by  using  the  engineer  troops  for  such  work  only  and 
giving  them  such  assistance  in  unskilled  labor  as  may 
be  required,  the  rapidity  with  which  roads,  drains, 
huts,  buildings,  etc.,  can  be  constructed  is  surprising. 
The  ordinary  guard,  police,  and  fatigue  work  for  the 
general  camp  and  all  other  details  not  requiring  tech- 
nical skill  nor  equipment  should  be  made  from  other 
troops  and  details  from  the  engineer  troops  should  be 
confined  to  such  duties  as  make  use  of  their  special 
training  and  equipment.  When  practicable  the  engi- 
neer troops  should  be  sent  to  the  camp  site  well  in 
advance  of  the  other  troops,  except  signal  and  quarter- 
master troops. 


VII. 

FIRE  ACTION. 

To  comprehend  the  subject  of  field  fortifications  it 
is  necessary  to  know  and  understand  the  effect  of  fire 
both  from  small  arms  and  artillery,  destructive  forces 
quite  different  in  action  from  those  against  which  the 
engineer  must  ordinarily  protect  his  works. 

To  shoot  straight,  to  direct  a  projectile  true  to  its 
intended  mark,  is  a  feat  of  engineering  just  as  much 
as  the  true  pointing  of  a  theodolite  in  a  geodetic  sur- 
vey, and  one  performed  under  vastly  more  difficult 
conditions:  great  personal  danger,  unknown  range  or 
windage,  and  no  system  of  least  squares  that  has  yet 
been  invented  to  "adjust"  a  wide  shot  after  it  is  fired, 
even  if  the  source  and  amount  of  error  is  known.  It 
is  the  belief  of  many  that  proficiency  in  rifle  shooting 
comes  only  with  actual  practice  in  firing,  and  that 
only  men  with  keen  eyesight  and  iron  nerve  can  hope 
to  become  expert  riflemen. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  most  riflemen  of  the  writer's 
acquaintance  have  probably  less  than  normal  eyesight. 
Most  of  them  wear  glasses  in  shooting.  It  is  not  the 
eyesight,  but  the  manner  of  using  it  which  counts,  and 
the  modern  holds  with  the  sling  will  correct  any 
tendency  towards  unsteadiness  due  to  nerves, 

Rifle  Instruction.  It  is  easy  to  comprehend  that  a 
man  of  intelligence,  instructed  as  to  reading  a  vernier, 
as  to  "bisecting"  a  target,  and  in  the  mechanism  of 
the  transit,  tangent  screws,  etc.,  might  make  a  very 
creditable  reading  of  an  angle  at  his  first  trial.  Upon 
this  fact  is  based  the  system  of  training  in  Company  D, 
an  intensive  system  by  which  we  claim  to  make  a  good 
shot  of  a  man  before  lie  ever  fires  his  rifle. 

Marksmanship  embraces  the  following  principles: 
knowledge  of  the  rifle,  of  sight  setting,  sighting,  and  of 
holding  the  aim  while  pulling  the  trigger. 

64 


FIRE  ACTION  65 

When  a  recruit  joins  Company  D.,  an  officer  or  non- 
commissioned officer  gives  him  the  following  instruc- 
tion in  the  rifle  : 

He  is  instructed  in  the  data  regarding  the  rifle,  its 
name,  length,  weight,  caliber,  sight  radius,  etc.,  and 
in  the  correct  nomenclature  of  the  parts. 

He  is  required  to  dismount  the  bolt  and  magazine 
mechanism  repeatedly,  and  is  instructed  in  the  proper 
manner  of  caring  for  and  cleaning  the  piece,  to  work 
always  from  the  breech  in  cleaning,  in  order  to  avoid 
injury  to  the  rifling  at  the  muzzle  and  consequent  loss 
of  accuracy. 

He  is  practiced  in  the  manipulation  of  the  rifle  by 
loading  drills  with  dummy  cartridges,  until  in  his 
hands  it  is  no  longer  a  source  of  danger  to  himself  or 
' '  innocent  bystanders. ' ' 

The  recruit  is  next  shown  how  to  use  the  sights. 
Enlarged  patterns  of  the  sights  are  cut  from  sheet 
brass,  and  mounted  by  hinges  on  a  wooden  bar.  An 
additional  hinged  flap,  containing  a  small  pin  hole,  is 
mounted  at  the  eye  end  of  the  bar.  The  pin  hole  is  on 
the  line  of  the  center  of  the  rear  sight  and  the  top  of 
the  front  sight,  so  that  in  looking  through  it  the  rear 
and  front  sights  always  appear  in  perfect  alignment. 


P/'/t  ho/e         Batf/e  sight   Peep  sight  open  s/'ght 


^__^ Target 

Adjusting  screws— Z3£ \.. .  J 

FIG.    1.      BAR   FOR    INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   USE    OF    SIGHTS 

First  Exercise.   The  instructor  sets  the  sights,  peep, 
open  or  battle-sight,  on  a  target  across  the  room.    The 


OG  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE  ENGINEER 

recruit,  looking  through  the  pin  hole,  sees  the  rear  and 
front  sight  and  the  bullseye  in  proper  alignment.  The 
bar  is  then  moved  and  he  is  required  to  reset  on  the 
target,  using  the  adjusting  screws. 

Second  Exercise.  The  pin  hole  flap  is  turned  down 
out  of  the  way,  and  the  recruit  is  required  to  align  the 
sights  and  bullseye,  centering  the  front  sight  in  the 
rear  peep  or  notch  as  well  as  he  can.  He  checks  the 
result  by  turning  up  the  rear  flap  and  looking  through 
the  pin  hole.  Any  error  in  "  centering "  the  front 
sight  now  shows  clearly.  The  instructor  can  also  see 
the  amount  and  direction  of  the  error  and  take  steps 
to  correct  it. 

Third  Exercise.  This  apparatus  may  also  be  used 
to  illustrate  the  importance  of  fixing  the  eye  on  the 
target  instead  of  on  the  front  sight.  The  target  is 
covered  and  the  recruit  directed  to  gaze  intently  at  the 
front  sight.  The  target  is  now  uncovered  and  is  seen 
indistinctly,  as  his  eye  is  out  of  focus.  The  front  and 
rear  sights  are  then  laid  down,  and  his  eye,  looking 
through  the  pin  hole,  is  focussed  on  the  target.  When 
the  sights  are  raised,  he  finds  that  he  can,  still  looking 
intently  at  the  bullseye,  see  through  and  over  the 
sights  and  tell  when  they  are  correctly  aligned,  with- 
out gazing  directly  at  them. 

The  positions  are  then  demonstrated,  with  explana- 
tions of  the  reasons  for  each  detail,  and  the  sling  hold 
is  illustrated  and  insisted  upon  for  each  man. 

For  instance,  in  the  kneeling  position,  the  weight 
rests  on  three  points:  the  sole  of  the  left  foot,  the 
right  knee  and  the  right  toe.  For  steadiness,  these 
three  points  must  be  as  widely  separated  as  possible, 
preferably  at  the  vertices  of  an  equilateral  triangle, 
similar  to  a  tripod.  The  left  foot  points  towards  the 
target,  the  heel  well  forward  so  that  the  leg  below  the 
knee  is  vertical.  The  right  leg  rests  squarely  across 
the  line  of  fire.  If  the  left  heel  is  drawn  back,  the  body 


FIRE  ACTION  67 

will  rock  backwards  and  forwards  and  the  sights  will 
move  vertically  on  the  target.  If  the  right  knee  is 
brought  close  to  the  left  heel,  the  right  leg  pointing  to 
the  rear,  the  body  will  sway  from  side  to  side,  and  the 
sights  will  move  horizontally  on  the  target.  The  left 
elbow,  supporting  the  rifle,  must  hang  over  the  left 
knee-cap.  A  trial  at  supporting  the  elbow  on  top  of 
the  knee  will  show  the  unsteadiness  of  this  position. 

The  use  of  the  sling  is  advocated  as  it  steadies  the 
aim,  assists  the  "hold"  while  pulling  the  trigger,  and 
tends  to  minimize  the  recoil. 

Similar  instruction  is  given  regarding  other  firing 
positions. 

He  is  now  prepared  to  shoot,  but  in  order  to  co- 
ordinate all  that  he  has  learned  regarding  the  manipu- 
lation of  the  rifle,  positions  and  sighting,  without  pre- 
liminary waste  of  ammunition,  and  to  prevent  de- 
veloping flinching  or  gun-shyness  from  the  recoil  and 
report,  there  is  yet  another  step  by  which  he  may 
apply  all  that  he  has  learned  and  actually  take  his 
position,  aim,  hold,  fire,  and  "call  his  shot,"  before 
going  upon  the  range. 

The  Hollafield  Rod  consists  of  a  brass  tube  which 
fits  in  the  bore  of  the  rifle  and  contains  a  movable 
plunger  or  needle,  sharpened  at  the  outer  end.  This 
needle,  held  in  place  by  a  spring,  rests  down  upon  the 
firing  pin,  which,  when  the  trigger  is  pulled,  drives 
the  needle  out  about  six  inches  in  front  of  the  muzzle, 
from  which  position  it  is  immediately  returned  by  the 
spring.  A  double  target  is  used,  the  vertical  distance 
between  the  bullseyes  being  equal  to  that  from  the  tip 
of  the  front  sight  to  the  center  of  the  bore.  (Fig.  2.) 

The  needle  will  puncture  the  lower  target  at  the 
corresponding  point  to  that  on  the  upper  target  which 
is  covered  by  the  sights  at  the  instant  of  firing.  The 
targets  are  reduced  in  size  so  as  to  subtend  the  same 


68 


PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE  ENGINEER 


visual  angle  at  six  inches  in  front  of  the  muzzle  as  a 
standard  target  at  the  regulation  range. 


Line  of  5ighi- 


Line  of 
Action 


FIG.     2.      THE    HOLLAFIELD    ROD 


By  using  a  shorter  rod,  and  placing  in  the  chamber 
of  the  rifle  a  dummy  cartridge  containing  a  movable 
plunger,  the  method  of  loading  may  be  practiced.  The 
firing  pin  strikes  the  plunger  in  the  cartridge,  which 
passes  the  blow  on  to  the  needle  of  the  Hollafield  Rod 
and  operates  it  as  before.  These  cartridges  may  be 
loaded  into  the  rifle  by  clips,  the  same  as  service  am- 
munition, and  rapid  or  magazine  fire  may  be  simulated 
in  all  respects  except  as  to  the  recoil  and  report. 

The  recruit  is  now  ready  for  the  range,  the  foregoing 
instruction  having  occupied  about  two  or  three  hours, 
depending  upon  his  adaptability.  He  is  familiar  with 
all  except  the  recoil  and  the  report,  and  on  the  indoor 
range  the  former  is  missing,  owing  to  the  reduced 
charges  used.  However,  cases  of  flinching  do  occur, 
and  are  usually  corrected  by  the  instructor's  loading 
the  man 's  rifle  for  him,  sometimes  with  an  empty  shell, 
so  that  he  never  knows  in  pulling  the  trigger  whether 
or  not  the  gun  will  go  off.  Flinching  is  caused  by  an- 
ticipating the  report.  The  report  itself  may  cause  a 
man  to  jump,  but  it  is  then  too  late  to  deflect  the 
bullet.  The  practice  of  calling  the  shot,  i.  e.,  calling 


FIRE  ACTION  69 

out  where  the  shot  has  struck  judging  from  the  point 
covered  by  the  sights  at  the  instant  of  firing,  will  us- 
ually fix  the  attention  and  prevent  shutting  the  eyes 
or  flinching.  Care  must  be  taken,  however,  not  to  call 
the  position  of  the  sights  when  beginning  the  trigger 
pull,  as  this  is  liable  to  vary  greatly  from  their  position 
on  firing. 

For  describing  the  position  of  hits  on  the  target,  a 
simple  clock-face  nomenclature  is  used.  In  Fig.  3,  a 
hit  at  (1)  is  described  as  a  bullseye,  pinwheel,  at  (2),  a 

TARGET  B 


FIG.    3.       TARGET   NOMENCLATURE 


70  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE  ENGINEER 

~bullseye,  half  in  at  ten  o'clock,  at  (3),  a  four,  hanging 
on  at  five  o'clock,  at  (4)  a  three  half  out  at  seven 
o'clock,  and  at  (5)  a  two  just  out  at  one-thirty. 

Outdoor  Firing.  A  similar  nomenclature  is  adopted 
to  describe  the  direction  of  the  wind.  (Fig.  4.)  The 
clock-face  is  supposed  to  lie  on  the  ground,  the  XII 
pointing  toward  the  target.  A  head  wind  is  a  twelve 
o'clock  wind,  one  from  the  right  is  a  three  o'clock 
wind,  and  one  blowing  towards  the  target  is  a  six 
o'clock  wind.  1,  5,  7  and  11  o'clock  winds  require  half 
the  correction,  and  2,  4,  8  and  10  o'clock  winds  about 
the  same  correction,  as  one  from  3  or  9  o'clock.  A 
wind  which  changes  direction  continually  from  one 


Point 


FIG.  4.       WIND  NOMENCLATURE 


FIRE  ACTION  71 

hand  to  another,  say  from  10  to  2  o  'clock,  as  frequently 
happens  when  the  targets  are  placed  against  a  hill  as 
a  back-stop,  is  known  as  a  fish-tail  wind. 

Outdoor  firing  brings  into  play  factors  hitherto  un- 
known :  wind,  mirage  and  the  varying  effects  of  light 
and  shade.  Shooting  ceases  to  be  mechanical  and  be- 
comes a  matter  of  skill  and  judgment  in  estimating 
and  correcting  for  conditions  which  may  not  be  twice 
alike.  The  windage  correction  may  vary  between 
shots  from  three-cmarters  of  a  point  right  to  the  same 
to  the  left  in  a  fish-tail  wind,  and  the  mere  passing  of 
a  cloud  over  a  target  previously  bright  may  make  a 
difference  of  fifty  yards  in  elevation  at  six  hundred 
yards. 

By  his  previous  instruction  and  practice  the  recruit 
is  supposed  to  have  learned  to  aim,  hold  and  pull  cor- 
rectly, and  above  all  to  have  confidence  in  his  hold,  in 
other  words  to  be  able  to  call  Ms  shot  with  certainty. 
Unless  he  can  do  this,  he  cannot  be  sure  whether  a  poor 
shot  was  caused  by  incorrect  adjustment  of  the  sights 
or  a  bad  pull.  The  man  who  is  confident  that  his  hold 
should  have  given  him  a  bullseye,  but  who  gets  a  three 
half  out  at  five  o'clock,  may  change  his  sight  setting 
with  certainty  that,  conditions  being  the  same,  his  next 
shot  will  strike  where  he  aims. 

Mirage,  the  heat  waves  that  are  so  annoying  to  the 
surveyor,  may  be  of  great  assistance  to  the  rifleman. 
By  focussing  a  telescope  just  short  of  the  targets  these 
waves  may  be  seen  running  across  the  field  like  the 
current  of  a  river.  They  give  the  direction  of  the 
wind,  sometimes  quite  different  from  that  felt  at  the 
firing  point,  and  show  sudden  changes  which  would 
otherwise  be  unnoticed  except  by  their  effect  upon  the 
shots.  From  their  speed,  estimated  in  miles  per  hour, 
the  range  rule,  Velocity  x  Range/40,  gives  the  windage 
correction,  to  be  applied  against  the  wind,  i.  e.,  the 
wind  gage  must  be  moved  to  the  right  to  counteract  a 


72 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


wind  from  that  direction.    At  600  yards,  according  to 
this   rule,    a   10-mile  wind   requires  a  correction  of 
10x6 

—  =  11/2  points  on  the  wind  gage. 
40 

One  point  on  the  wind  gage  subtends  a  horizontal 
distance  of  four  inches  on  the  target  for  each  hundred 
yards  of  the  range.  At  600  yards  a  change  of  iy2 
points  varies  the  position  of  the  hit  by  6  x  4  x  l1/^  =  36 
inches.  Therefore  a  ten-mile  wind  at  600  yards  would 
be  sufficient  to  cause  a  shot  fired  without  correction  to 
miss  or  just  strike  the  edge  of  the  target  (72  x  72 
inches).  Fig  5  shows  the  correction  scales,  both  for 


TARGET  B-600  YARDS 


-   so 


/ 00 yds. 


-    50 


FIG.    5.      CORRECTION  SCALES 


FIRE   ACTION 


73 


elevation  and  windage,  for  the  B  target  used  at  600 
yards.  The  rule  for  the  elevation  correction  is  :  a 
change  of  one  hundred  yards  in  elevation  will  raise  or 
lower  the  position  of  the  shot  by  a  number  of  inches 
equal  to  the  square  of  the  hundreds  of  yards  in  the 
range.  At  six  hundred  yards,  therefore,  a  change  of 
100  yards  in  the  sight  setting  will  change  the  elevation 
of  the  hit  by  6  x  6  =  36  inches,  half  the  height  of  the 
target.  (Fig.  5.) 

Effect  of  Small  Arms  Fire.  If  a  number  of  men  are 
firing  at  an  object,  the  best  shots  striking  it,  the  others 
missing  by  various  margins,  the  wrhole  sheaf  of  tra- 
jectories will  form  a  cone  about  that  of  the  best  shot 
as  an  axis.  (Fig.  6.) 


OA  -  OA '-  OA  "-  Beaten 
Zone  for  Various  Slopes. 

FIG.  6.      CONE  OF  DISPERSION 

This  is  known  as  the  cone  of  dispersion  and  its  inter- 
section with  the  ground  surface  is  the  beaten  zone. 
This  cone,  similarly  to  the  stream  from  a  fire  nozzle, 
may  be  played  over  a  field  at  the  will  of  the  com- 
mander by  his  designating  the  range  and  objective.  In 
laying  out  a  plan  of  fire  action,  each  unit,  however 
large  or  small,  must  be  assigned  its  sector  of  fire  and 
kept  to  it.  It  is  natural  for  men  to  fire  at  what  can  be 
most  clearly  seen,  and  unless  they  are  held  strictly  to 
a  portion  of  the  line  and  cover  their  own  front  thor- 
oughly, it  may  happen  that  a  section  of  the  enemy's 


74 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


line,  well  concealed  and  not  troubled  by  hostile  fire,  is 
able  to  fire  with  deadly  accuracy  and  inflict  heavy 
losses. 

Rifle  fire  which  dominates  a  certain  space  and  keeps 
the  enemy  from  occupying  it  is  just  as  effective  as  that 
which  strikes  his  men,  and  the  greater  the  space  which 
can  be  thus  occupied  by  fire  action  per  unit  volume  of 
fire,  the  more  efficient  is  that  fire. 

Suppose  we  consider  a  plane  surface  perpendicular 
to  the  axis  of  the  cone  of  dispersion.  The  least  section 
of  a  cone  is  the  circle,  perpendicular  to  the  axis,  and 
therefore  such  a  slope,  facing  towards  the  enemy,  will 
be  less  swept  by  his  fire  than  a  level  plain.  On  a  re- 


From  Low  Ground   to  High. 


From   High  Ground    to  Low. 

FIG.    7.      FIRE    FROM    LOW    GROUND    TO    HIGH    AND    VICE 
VERSA 

verse  slope  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  cone  of  dispersion 
the  entire  surface  is  swept  b}r  a  grazing  fire,  and  the 
whole  slope  is  untenable  without  cover. 


FIRE  ACTION 


75 


Fig.  8  illustrates  the  term  danger  space. 
D  ' a-f-6  -  /?-c 


Treyec/ory 


FIG.    8.      DANGER   SPACE 

A  bullet  from  our  military  rifle  would  be  dangerous 
to  a  man  standing  throughout  its  range  up  to  700 
yards.  A  slope  which  makes  an  angle  with  the  tra- 
jectory decreases  the  danger  space,  as  when  firing 
against  a  hillside  or  from  a  height  onto  a  plain,  and 
a  reverse  slope,  parallel  to  the  trajectory  or  nearly 
so,  permits  a  grazing  fire  with  greatly  increased  dan- 
ger space. 


FIG.    9.      DEFILADE 


7G 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE  ENGINEER 


A  defiladed  space  is  one  which  is  protected  from 
hostile  fire.  A  slope  parallel  to  the  trajectory  increases 
the  defiladed  space  formed  by  a  given  object,  while  a 
contrary  slope  decreases  it.  (Fig.  9). 

PENETRATION  OF  HIFLE  BULLET.* 


Material 

Maximum 
Penetration. 

Remarks. 

Steel  plate,  best  hard. 
Steel    plate,    ordinary 
rnild  or  wrought  iron. 

Shingle  

1/16  inch 
%     inch 

6  inches 

At  30  yards  normal   to 
plate,  3/16  inch  req'd. 
3/16  inch  is  proof  at 
not     less     than     600 
yards,  unless  the  plate 
is  set  at  a  slope  of  3 
to  2,  when  3/16  inch  is 
proof  at  250  yards. 
Not  larger  than  1  inch 

Coal  hard  

9  inches 

ring  gauge. 

Brickwork,     cement 
mortar  

9  inches 

150  rounds  concentrated 
on  one  spot  will  breach 

Brickwork,   lime   mor- 
tar   

14  inches 

a  9-inch  brick  wall  at 
200  yards 

Chalk    

15  inches 

Sand,  confined  between 
boards,   or  in   sand- 
bags    

18  inches 

Very  high  velocity  bul- 
lets have  less  penetra- 
tion in  sand  at  short 

Sand  loose  

30  inches 

than  at  medium 

Hard  wood  —  e.  g.,  oak, 
with  grain  

38  inches 

ranges. 

Earth,  free  from  stones 
(unrammed)    

40  inches 

Ramming  earth  reduces 
its  resisting  power. 

Soft    wood  —  e.  g.,    fir, 
with  grain  

58  inches 

Penetration  of  brick- 
work and  timber  is 

Clay   

60  inches 

less  at  short  than  at 
medium  ranges. 
Varies  greatly.    This  is 

Dry  Turf  or  peat  

80  inches 

maximum  for  greasy 
clay. 

*From  British  Manual  of  Field  Engineering. 


FIRE  ACTION  77 

Artillery  fire  has  grown  to  be  a  most  important 
factor  in  modern  tactics.  With  the  great  increase  in 
volume  and  accuracy  which  has  been  developed  in  the 
present  war,  it  bids  fair  to  almost  revolutionize  battle 
tactics  and  the  art  of  fortification.  The  introduction 
of  indirect  fire  and  spotting  permits  a  battery  to  take 
up  a  position  of  comparative  safety  and  systematically 
search  out  the  landscape. 

The  battery  commander,  with  an  instrument  re- 
sembling an  engineer's  transit,  places  himself  where 
the  target,  the  guns,  and  some  other  point  visible  to 
the  gunners  can  be  seen.  The  guns  themselves  may  be 
separated  from  the  target  by  a  hill  or  other  obstacle. 
The  observer  reads  the  angle  between  the  target  and 
the  common  aiming  point.  A  simple  computation,  as- 
sisted by  tables,  gives  the  gunner  the  angle  at  which 
his  panoramic  sight  must  be  set,  so  that  when  aiming 
at  the  common  point,  his  gun  is  pointed  at  the  target. 
The  angle  of  site,  which  depends  upon  the  difference 
of  elevation  of  the  gun  and  the  target,  also  enters  into 
the  problem,  it  being  clear  that  of  two  points  at  the 
same  distance  from  the  gun,  the  higher  will  necessitate 
a  greater  elevation  of  the  gun  to  hit  it  than  the  former. 
The  distance  from  the  guns  to  the  station  and  to  the 
target  is  triangulated  or  estimated. 

The  spotter  is  an  officer  located  near  enough  to  the 
target  to  observe  the  effect  of  the  fire.  He  is  connected 
with  the  battery  commander  by  telephone  and  corrects 
the  laying  of  the  guns  by  reporting  the  results  of  the 
shots.  He  also  picks  up  points  which  may  be  of  im- 
portance, for  instance,  a  section  of  road  which  must  be 
crossed  by  the  enemy  in  charging,  directs  the  firing 
of  a  few  ranging  shots,  until  the  target  is  struck  con- 
sistently, and  causes  the  battery  commander  to  register 
the  target  under  a  serial  number  or  letter,  together 
with  such  gun  data  (range,  azimuth,  etc.)  as  will  en- 
able him  to  again  find  the  target  without  further  sight- 


78  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

ing  shots.  The  spotter  can  at  any  time  thereafter 
sweep  the  road  in  question  by  telephoning  to  the  bat- 
tery, "Target  H,  shrapnel,  rapid  fire'7. 

Artillery  projectiles  are  of  two  kinds:  high  explo- 
sive shell  and  shrapnel.  The  former  apparently  has  no 
limit  to  its  destmctiveness,  and  no  structure  can  long 
withstand  it.  The  Russians  on  203-Meter  Hill  found 
that  12  feet  of  earth  over  their  bomb-proofs  was  in- 
sufficient protection  from  the  shells  of  the  Japanese 
11-inch  siege  mortars.  A  projectile  from  a  12-inch 
U.  S.  coast-defense  mortar,  fired  inland,  has  been 
known  to  penetrate  30  feet  in  natural  compact  earth 
before  exploding.  Fortunately  guns  of  this  size  are 
few  and  are  generally  available  against  selected  points 
only,  and  therefore  would  not  be  used  for  the  bom- 
bardment of  long  lines  of  field-works.  A  parapet  thick- 
ness of  12  to  15  feet  of  earth  and  overhead  cover  of 
about  six  feet  will  protect  against  ordinary  explosive 
shell  from  field  pieces,  unless  the  bombardment  be  con- 
centrated or  long  continued. 

Shrapnel  is  used  mainly  against  the  personnel  of  an 
enemy,  as  is  the  explosive  shell  against  his  material. 
At  a  range  of  3000  yards  on  level  ground  a  burst  of 
shrapnel  covers  an  approximate  ellipse  about  20  yards 
by  150  yards,  or  2350  square  yards,  the  longer  dimen- 
sion lying  from  front  to  rear.  (Fig.  10.)  The  dis- 
tribution of  the  bullets  and  fragments,  or  splinters, 
over  this  area  is  not  uniform,  the  end  nearest  the 
enemy  receiving  the  greatest  number.  The  major  axis 
of  the  beaten  zone  decreases  with  a  greater  or  a  less 
range.  It  also  decreases  as  the  slope  is  tilted  towards 
the  enemy,  and  increases  on  a  reverse  slope,  similarly  to 
the  beaten  zone  of  rifle  fire.  Its  width  remains  un- 
changed except  as  affected  by  the  height  of  the  burst. 
Shrapnel  splinters  and  bullets  cause  badly  lacerated 
wounds,  but  they  will  not  penetrate  a  steel  helmet,  the 
pack  on  a  man's  back,  nor  a  six-inch  layer  of  well- 


FIRE   ACTION 


compacted  earth  as  overhead  cover.  Troops  well  en- 
trenched have  nothing  to  fear  from  shrapnel.  The 
angle  of  fall  of  shrapnel  bullets  is  so  steep,  18  degrees 


\   \\   \  \ 


PIG.    10. 


Beaten 


Zone, 

A   BURST   OF   SHRAPNEL 


with  the  vertical,  that  any  trench  designed  to  resist  it 
must  be  very  deep  and  narrow,  or  must  be  provided 
with  some  form  of  overhead  cover. 

Against  entrenched  troops  shrapnel  is  not  effective, 
and  high  explosive  shell  must  be  used  to  demolish  the 
works  and  get  at  the  men.  In  Europe  it  has  been 
found  that  men  are  killed  by  the  back  blast  of  a 
shell,  without  being  touched  by  its  fragments.  This 
is  guarded  against  by  throwing  up  an  embankment 
in  the  rear  as  well  as  in  front  of  the  trench. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
FIELD  FORTIFICATIONS. 

Fortifications  are  defined  as  "any  engineering  de- 
vices for  increasing  the  fighting  power  of  troops  in  the 
field."  That  which  protects  our  troops  from  the 
enemy 's  fire,  or  simply  conceals  them,  which  assists  our 
maneuvers  and  communications,  or  hinders  and  ob- 
structs his,  which  is  useful  to  us  or  destroys  what  is 
useful  to  him,  will  increase  our  fighting  power.  In- 
trenchments,  screens  or  blinds,  obstacles,  communi- 
cating trenches,  mines  and  demolitions,  all  come  under 
the  head  of  fortifications.  Of  these,  by  far  the  most 
important  are  those  which  afford  protection  from  the 
enemy 's  fire  and  incidentally  provide  concealment  and 
means  of  intercommunication.  The  term  fortification, 
as  usually  employed,  refers  to  works  of  this  character 
only. 

Field  works  may  be  considered  as  to : 

1.  Location,  or  siting. 

2.  Trace,  or  ground  plan. 

3.  Construction. 

4.  Concealment. 

LOCATION  OF  FIELD  WORKS. 

The  location  of  trenches  is  affected  by:  first,  the 
general  line  to  be  occupied,  second,  tactical  considera- 
tions and  features  of  the  terrain. 

The  general  line  to  be  held  is  determined  by  the 
commander  of  the  field  forces,  and  depends  upon  stra- 
tegical considerations.  Subordinate  commanders  may 
exercise  considerable  latitude  in  the  local  siting  of 
works,  so  long  as  they  do  not  depart  from  the  general 

80 


FIELD    FORTIFICATIONS  81 

line,  mask  the  fire  of  other  organizations,  nor  intro- 
duce dangerous  salients  or  re-entrant  angles  into  the 
line. 

Troops  who  will  occupy  a  line  of  trenches,  therefore, 
endeavor  to  fit  them  to  the  terrain,  so  as  to  provide 
concealment,  reduce  the  work  of  construction,  or  to 
augment  the  effectiveness  of  the  works.  Tactical  con- 
siderations, such  as  actual  or  potential  interference  by 
the  enemy  with  the  construction,  may  affect  the  loca- 
tion. 

Works  for  the  defense  of  a  position  should  provide 
concealment,  a  clear  field  of  fire  to  the  front,  good 
communications  to  the  rear,  and  the  flanks  must  be 
made  secure,  either  by  resting  upon  some  natural  ob- 
stacle, as  a  river,  swamp,  cliff,  etc.,  by  contact  with 
adjacent  troops,  or  by  proper  construction.  A  clear 
field  of  fire  to  the  front  was  formerly  considered  all 
important,  to  be  secured,  if  necessary,  at  the  expense 
of  all  other  considerations.  With  the  greatly  increased 
effectiveness  of  modern  artillery,  however,  it  has  been 
accepted  as  a  general  maxim  that  ' '  that  which  is  seen 
is  as  good  as  destroyed, ' '  and  concealment  of  the  works 
becomes  of  prime  importance.  Improvement  of  small 
arms,  machine  guns,  and  the  wire  entanglement  render 
more  certain  the  stopping  of  an  attack  in  the  final 
100  yards.  In  this  portion  of  the  immediate  fore- 
ground, therefore,  it  is  important  that  no  part  be 
screened  from  the  fire  of  the  defense  by  vegetation, 
buildings,  or  topographical  features.  Vegetation  and 
buildings  may  be  cleared  away,  gullies  and  hollows 
filled  and  slopes  pared  down,  but  much  of  this  labor 
may  be  avoided  by  proper  selection  of  a  site.  In  Fig. 
11,  a  position  at  the  military  crest,  B,  commands  all 
the  foreground,  while  one  at  the  topographical  crest, 
A,  leaves  considerable  dead  space,  where  the  enemy 
may  collect  in  safety  and  rest  for  a  final  dash  up  the 
hill.  Furthermore,  the  latter  position  brings  the  works 


82  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

into  relief  against  the  sky,  where  they  are  plainly 
visible  to  the  enemy. 


Dead  Space 


FIG.    11.       TRENCHES    AT    MILITARY    AND 
TOPOGRAPHICAL  CREST 

But  even  the  position  at  the  military  crest  may  not 
be  the  best.  It  is  advantageous  because  of  its  command 
or  elevation,  and  the  greater  visibility  of  the  field  of 
fire  thus  secured ;  because  the  enemy  will  have  to  climb 
to  reach  it;  and  because  it  usually  offers  better  com- 
munications to  the  rear.  But  it  may  be  exposed  to 
artillery  fire  up  to  the  last  minute  of  an  attack,  without 
danger  to  the  enemy's  infantry;  shots  fired  from  this 
position  have  a  very  short  danger-space  and  small 
beaten  zone ;  and  if  the  military  crest  is  near  the  top, 
a  large  percentage  of  overs  may  graze  the  crest  and 
reverse. slope,  with  danger  to  the  supports  and  reserves 
in  waiting  there.  A  trench  at  the  foot  of  the  hill,  B, 
Fig.  12,  affords  a  grazing  fire  to  the  front  with  a  long 
danger  space,  so  that  attacking  lines  of  infantry  cannot 
follow  one  another  closely ;  the  enemy 's  artillery  can- 
not support  the  attack  to  its  last  stages  without  danger 


FIELD    FORTIFICATIONS  83 

to  his  own  men ;  and  complete  concealment  is  usually 
easy  to  effect,  so  that  the  position  is  disclosed  only  when 
fire  is  opened  by  the  defenders.  A  line  of  dummy 


FIG.  12.   TRENCHES  AT  FOOT  OF  SLOPE,  MILITARY  CREST 
AND  IN  REAR  OF  CREST 

trenches,  D,  at  the  military  or  topographical  crest  will 
tend  to  draw  the  enemy 's  artillery  fire  away  from  the 
true  position.  The  one  disadvantage  of  this  location  is 
the  communications  to  the  rear,  which  may  have  to  be 
effected  by  the  digging  of  zig-zag  trenches,  traversed 
so  as  to  be  safe  from  enfilade  fire.  These,  in  turn,  are 
difficult  of  concealment. 

Some  authorities  advocate  a  double  or  multiple  line 
of  fire,  as  at  A,  B,  and  other  points  on  the  slope  to- 
wards the  enemy.  This  permits  an  increased  volume 
of  fire  per  unit  width  of  the  position,  but  the  trenches 
must  not  be  relied  upon  as  successive  lines  of  defense. 
If  the  first  line  is  carried,  its  retreating  occupants 
will  mask  the  fire  of  the  rear  trenches. 

The  plan  of  placing  trenches  in  rear  of  the  crest,  C, 
Fig.  12,  is  proposed  as  affording  a  complete  conceal- 
ment from  observers  who  could  direct  an  effective  artil- 
lery fire  upon  the  position.  This  plan,  it  is  argued, 
allows  too  much  dead  space  in  the  immediate  front,  so 
that  the  enemy  may  advance  in  perfect  security  to 
close  range  at  the  crest  of  the  hill.  Its  advocates,  how- 
ever, claim  that  fire  action  at  the  mid-ranges,  300-600 
yards,  is  impracticable  during  an  infantry  attack 


84  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE   ENGINEER 

properly  supported  by  artillery,  however  clear  the  field 
of  fire,  and  that  in  this  position,  the  defenders  do  not 
suffer  from  the  preliminary  bombardment,  and  still 
have  about  100  yards  in  which  to  stop  the  enemy,  be- 
sides the  advantage  of  a  heavy  fire  at  close  range,  deliv- 
ered unexpectedly.  Experience  in  the  present  war 
appears  to  justify  this  contention. 

TRACE    OF    FIELD    WORKS. 

The  ground  plan  of  a  work  must  be  laid  out  to  fit  the 
terrain.  Its  location  must  not  interfere  with  the  fire 
from  other  trenches,  nor  must  its  fire  be  masked  by 
their  location.  The  line  follows  roughly  the  contour, 
stepping  back  in  echelon  at  bends,  as  a  low  point  in 
the  line,  like  a  salient  angle,  particularly  invites 
attack. 

In  the  general  line  to  be  occupied,  there  will  be  cer- 
tain points  more  suited  to  strong  defensive  works  than 
others.  These  become  the  skeleton,  which  is  completed 
by  filling  the  intervals  with  connecting  trenches.  The 
plan  is  extended  by  the  construction  of  Points- 
d'Appiu,  or  supporting  points,  which  are  designed 
for  all  round  defense,  and  are  located  close  behind  the 
main  line  of  trenches,  to  offer  a  stubborn  resistance 
and  break  up  any  attack  which  may  penetrate  the 
trenches.  A  work  of  this  character,  with  a  closed 
trace,  is  known  as  a  redoubt  or  ring-trench. 

When  high  parapets  were  the  rule  in  fortifications 
an  enemy  who  gained  the  protection  of  the  outer  wall 
was  about  as  safe  as  the  man  inside,  so  the  lines  were 
traced  with  projections  to  the  front  and  at  the  corners 
of  closed  works,  known  respectively  as  salients  and 
bastions,  from  which  the  curtain,  or  line  of  connecting 
parapet,  could  be  swept  by  a  flanking  fire.  This  form 
still  survives,  changed  by  the  increased  range  of  small 
arms,  in  the  line  of  strongly  fortified  points,  connected 
by  curtains  of  fire  trenches. 


FIELD    FORTIFICATIONS 


85 


Fig.  13  shows  a  portion  of  a  company  trench  de- 
signed for  one  squad,  allowing  one  rifle  per  yard  of 
front.  The  splinter-proof  in  the  rear  is  for  the  purpose 


ys.    Night  Sentinel 
Day  Sentinel 


s  Mach.  Our? 

Emplacement 


Firing    Trench 

Mach,  Gun  ["    I — I  | 
k/.^i '* ' 


FIG.    13.      SQUAD    TRENCH 

of  sheltering  the  squad,  excepting  the  sentry  or  look- 
out, during  a  shrapnel  bombardment.  In  Fig.  14  is 
shown  the  complete  company  trench  occupying  a  front 
of  about  125  yards,  with  firing,  communicating  and 
cover  trenches,  splinter  and  bomb  proofs,  and  dressing 
stations. 

The  flanks  of  a  trench  should  not  be  refused  as  in 
Fig.  15  (a).  The  men  in  this  flank  trench  lose  all  fire 
to  the  front,  are  exposed  to  enfilade,  and  are  useless 
except  in  case  of  a  flank  attack.  In  (b)  the  trenches 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


^/y/jhf  Senfme/s  ^^^^ 


r  i  i  ? 

/=•  /'  A   /    1/7     y  _  r[r   f  /?  f   /!_ 


FIG.    14.       COMPANY   TRENCH 


(a)     Incorrect. 


(b)      Correct. 
FIG.    15.      FLANK  OF  A  TRENCH 


FIELD    FORTIFICATIONS 


87 


are  stepped  back  in  echelon,  and  each  subdivision  may 
fire  to  the  front  or  towards  the  flank. 

CONSTRUCTION   OF  FIELD   WORKS. 

Parapet.  The  typical  form  of  parapet  is  shown  in 
Fig.  16,  with  the  parts  named.  This  form  is  prac- 
tically obsolete,  and  is  shown  only  to  give  the  nomen- 
clature. The  present  tendency  is  to  dispense  with  the 
ditch,  lower  or  surpress  entirely  the  parapet  to  aid 


6  /a  cis   D/Tch      Parapef 


Trench 


R=relief,   C=command,  V=vertical  cover. 

FIG.    16.      TYPICAL   PARAPET 

concealment,  and  to  deepen  and  decrease  the  width  of 
the  trench  to  afford  increased  protection  from  artillery 
fire.  The  banquette,  formerly  a  slope  up  which  field 
pieces  were  rolled  to  place  them  in  action,  is  now  con- 
structed in  steps,  as  artillery  is  no  longer  grouped 
with  the  infantry. 


88  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

In  permanent  works,  counterscarp  galleries  are 
sometimes  built  in  the  outer  wall  of  the  ditch  and  con- 
nected with  the  trench  by  tunnels  under  the  parapet. 
These  galleries  are  occupied  by  men  who  enfilade  the 
ditch  and  fire  into  the  backs  of  such  of  the  enemy  as 
penetrate  this  far.  The  position  of  the  exterior  crest 
prevents  these  men  from  firing  into  or  being  reached 
by  the  fire  of  the  defenders  in  the  trench.  A  better 
device  is  the  caponiere,  which  is  a  low  gallery  built 
transversely  across  the  •  ditch,  with  its  roof  slightly 
above  the  bottom  of  the  latter,  and  the  upper  part  of 
its  walls  pierced  for  rifle  fire  along  the  ditch.  This 
structure  is  directly  connected  through  the  parapet 
with  the  trench. 

The  parados  wras  formerly  constructed  only  when  re- 
verse fire  was  anticipated,  as  in  closed  wrorks,  but  the 
present  war  has  proven  it  of  great  value  in  concealing 
embrasures  and  loopholes,  through  which  otherwise 
light  would  show,  in  supplying  a  background  which 
renders  the  regular  shape  of  the  parapet  less  conspic- 
uous, and  in  protecting  the  occupants  from  the  blast 
of  high  explosive  shell  bursting  just  in  rear.  Trenches 
are  frequently  built  with  a  substantial  parados  and 
no  parapet. 

Revetments.  The  interior  slope  must  nearly  always 
be  revetted.  These  revetments  are  of  many  varied 
types.  For  more  deliberate  works,  gabions,  which  are 
large  cylindrical  baskets,  woven  without  ends  and  earth 
filled,  are  largely  used.  In  permanent  works  masonry 
and  concrete  are  common.  In  the  field,  however,  re- 
vetments must  be  improvised  from  the  materials  at 
hand.  Sand  ~bags  are  probably  the  most  popular,  as 
they  will  not  splinter  under  fire  and  afford  more  flexi- 
bility in  their  use,  but  stone,  logs,  planks,  sod,  brush 
fascines  and  hurdles,  and  even  steel  sheet  piling  all 
find  their  use. 

For  crowning  a  parapet,  some  material  which  will 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS  89 

not  splinter,  as  sod  or  sand  bags,  must  be  used.  The 
former  is  cut  rather  thick  and  built  up  as  ashlar  ma- 
sonry with  alternate  headers  and  stretchers.  Sand  bags 
are  laid  up  in  a  similar  manner,  but  must  not  be  filled 
to  a  too  plump  form.  They  must  be  laid  with  a  shove- 
joint,  in  order  to  close  all  crevices,  and  the  tied  ends, 
or  chokes,  and  the  seams,  must  be  laid  in  the  parapet. 
Logs  and  planks  are  cut  to  the  height  of  the  interior 
slope,  their  ends  placed  behind  a  foot  log  in  a  shallow 
trench,  and  their  tops  secured  by  a  waling  piece  which 
is  anchored  to  stakes  buried  in  the  parapet.  Poles  are 
laid  horizontally  behind  vertical  stakes,  whose  lower 
ends  are  driven  in  the  ground  and  whose  tops  are  an- 
chored to  stakes  in  the  parapet  as  described  above. 
Fascines,  or  bundles  of  brush,  are  treated  similarly. 
Hurdles  are  woven  sheets  of  basket  work,  like  a  gabion 
rolled  out  straight.  They  are  secured  by  driving  their 
vertical  stakes  into  the  ground  and  anchoring  their 
tops.  Hurdles  are  particularly  adapted  to  the  revet- 
ment of  trenches  in  unstable  earth,  provided  it  will 
stand  long  enough  to  complete  the  excavation. 

Traverses.  A  trench  is  protected  from  enfilade,  i.  e., 
from  a  flanking  fire  which  rakes  the  trench  from  end 
to  end,  by  offsets  known  as  traverses.  (Fig.  17a.)  In 
order  to  afford  a  maximum  development  of  the  firing 
line  the  trench  is  sometimes  offset  to  the  front,  but  this 
type  does  not  meet  with  much  favor.  The  best  form  is 
the  detached  traverse,  with  a  firing  trench  in  front  and 
a  passage  in  rear,  from  which  the  communicating 
trench  leads.  Besides  intercepting  enfilade  fire,  tra- 
verses tend  to  localize  the  effects  of  a  shell  bursting  in 
the  trench.  The  traverse  should  be  high  enough  to 
protect  not  only  the  trench,  but  the  heads  of  men  fir- 
ing over  the  parapet.  It  should  not,  however,  be  higher 
than  the  parados.  Fig.  17  (b)  shows  the  effect  of  a 
bend  in  the  trench,  exposing  a  portion  to  flanking  fire. 
This  may  be  remedied  by  a  longer  traverse,  a  shorter 


90 


PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE   ENGINEER 


distance  between  traverses,  a  recess  at  the  point  ex- 
posed or  a  parados.  The  present  tendency  is  towards 
a  wider  traverse  than  heretofore,  owing  to  the  use  of 


Riflemen 
Exposed  to 
Enfilade  Fir? 


Enemy's' 
Ft  A  V 


A- longer  Traverse. 
B -Traverses  Cfoser  Together, 
C- Parados. 
D  -Recess  with  Riflemen 
Farther  Forward. 

FIG.   17.      PROTECTION  FROM  ENFILADE 


l^r^sj 

FIG.     18.      DIGGING    IN    UNDER    FIRE 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS 


91 


high  explosive  shell  and  machine  guns.  The  latter  can 
cut  down  an  ordinary  traverse  in  a  few  minutes,  es- 
pecially if  not  revetted.  The  space  under  a  traverse, 
which  cannot  be  reached  by  the  enemy's  fire,  is  some- 
times hollowed  out  and  used  for  a  magazine  or  store 
house. 

Firing  Trenches.  In  the  operation  of  digging  in 
under  fire,  the  soldier  first  excavates  a  shallow  prone 
trench,  deepening  it  successively  to  a  kneeling  and  a 
standing  trench,  the  final  step  being  the  construction 
of  a  passageway  in  rear,  through  which  a  man  may 
pass  without  disturbing  the  troops  firing  and  without 
exposing  his  head  over  the  parapet.  (Fig.  18.)  A 
prone  or  kneeling  trench  should  not  be  contemplated 
for  a  moment  except  as  steps  towards  a  standing 
trench,  as  they  are  utterly  useless  against  shrapnel. 

In  Fig.  19  (a)  a  common  error  is  illustrated.  The 
parapet  is  not  bullet-proof,  and  the  rifleman  is  exposed 


(a)   Incorrect, 


(  b)  Corrected  . 

FIG.     19.      BULLET-PROOF    PARAPET 


92 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


to  a  plunging  fire,  as  from  shrapnel  or  infantry  at 
long  range,  from  his  belt  buckle  up.  The  interior 
slope  must  be  revetted,  and  straightened  up  so  as  to 
increase  the  top  thickness  of  the  parapet  and  to  afford 
cover  to  the  rifleman  to  the  height  of  his  shoulders. 
(Fig.  19-b.) 
Fig.  20  shows  a  plain  standing  trench  of  low  parapet. 


Wark  ouf3 
ind  Increase  as 
?equ/red  for 
Sofr  Ground 


"Slic/hi-Falt  fo 
'Back  for  Water 


FIG.   20.      STANDING  TRENCH 


'tfpZffiwff/fi'    - 

^^^  for  Water 

FIG.    21.      STANDING    TRENCH    WITH   PASSAGE 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS 


93 


Fig.  21  shows  the  same  with  the  addition  of  a  pas- 
sage. This  latter  may  be  excavated  under  fire,  with  the 
occupants  of  the  firing  step  in  action.  The  recesses 
in  the  parapet  are  for  spare  ammunition. 

In  Fig.  22  the  parapet  is  entirely  surpressed  and 
the  earth  wasted.  The  firing  step  is  replaced  by  a  plat- 
form, allowing  space  underneath  for  resting  or  storage. 


FIG.    22.      FIRING    TRENCH    WITHOUT    PARAPET 

Fig.  23  is  a  development  from  a  series  of  individual 
rifle  pits,  a  connecting  trench  having  been  dug  along 
their  rear.  In  addition  to  the  traverses  formed  by  the 
recesses,  which  protect  the  men  firing  from  enfilade, 
the  passage  trench  itself  should  be  traversed,  to  protect 
those  using  it. 

Head  Cover.  Against  a  heavy  fire  the  types  of 
trenches  described  would  not  afford  sufficient  protec- 


04  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE  ENGINEER 

tion,  and  some  form  of  head  cover  must  be  adopted. 
This  may  be  formed  by  crenellating  the  parapet,  form- 
ing notches  or  embrasures  through  which  to  fire,  or  by 
the  construction  of  loopholes,  which  are  embrasures 


WILL 

BE  ADDED,  SINGLE  AC- 
CESSES  MAY   BE   2'  AN& 

DOUBLE.      ' 


DOUBLE.  RE.CESS 
SINGLE 


FIG.    23.      RECESSED  FIRING   TRENCH 

roofed  over.  A  crenellated  parapet  does  not  afford  as 
good  protection  as  loopholes,  and  is  usually  very  con- 
spicuous, unless  viewed  against  a  high  parados  as  a 
background. 

Fig.  24  illustrates  types  of  loopholes.  In  A  a  wide 
opening  is  presented  to  the  enemy,  but  the  rifleman  has 
a  large  angle  of  fire  with  small  movement  on  his  part. 
The  cheeks  of  the  loophole  must  be  stepped  as  shown 
to  prevent  bullets  glancing  in  through  the  throat.  In 
B  a  small  opening  is  exposed  to  the  enemy's  view,  but 
the  rifleman  must  change  his  position  considerably  to 
alter  his  line  of  fire  to  any  appreciable  extent.  Fewer 
men  per  given  length  of  trench  could  be  used  with 
such  loopholes  than  with  those  of  the  A  type.  In  C  is 


FIELD    FORTIFICATIONS 


95 


shown  a  compromise  of  the  two  types.  A  steel  plate, 
cut  out  as  shown,  is  usually  placed  in  the  throat  of 
loopholes  of  the  C  type.  Loopholes  should  be  screened 
if  light  may  be  seen  through  them,  as  otherwise  the 


Type  "A" 


Type  "B' 


Type  "C 


J\ 


^  Head  Cover  Bullet- Proof  Thickness 
According  to  Material 
Alternative  Arrangements  of  Loopholes  in  Plan  . 

%A  thick 


"K 


k  -•  -  -  2' *        K 2' H 

Steel    Loopholes    in    Plates. 

FIG.    24.      TYPES    QF    LOOPHOLES 

obscuring  of  an  orifice  means  a  head  behind  it,  and 
the  enemy's  sharpshooters  will  learn  the  location  of 
the  holes  and  fire  when  the  light  is  cut  off. 

Fig.  25  shows  a  common  error  of  the  individual 
soldier  in  constructing  a  loophole  and  how  it  may  be 
avoided.  It  is  usually  necessary  to  exam^ine  all  loop- 
holes built  by  enlisted  men  and  see  that  an  unobstruct- 
ed field  of  fire  in  the  proper  direction  is  afforded. 

Overhead  Cover.  Under  shrapnel  bombardment  head 
cover  alone  is  insufficient,  and  overhead  cover  must  be 
provided.  The  simplest  form  is  that  prepared  by  the 


96 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


I  in  Bags 


?>  or4- 


,.       . 

.-''        Cartridges-'' 
5andbags  of  Earth 

Incorrect. 


Cartridges-''' 

Correct. 


FIG.    25.      LOOPHOLE   CORRECTED   FOR   WIDE 
ANGLE  OF  FIRE 


Sectional  Elevation  A-A 

FIG.    26.      INDIVIDUAL    OVERHEAD    COVER 


FIELD    FORTIFICATIONS 


97 


individual  soldier,  Fig.  26.  Boards  are  laid  on  the 
ground  and  covered  by  the  parapet  as  the  excavation 
of  a  plain  standing  trench  proceeds.  The  niche  is 
finally  scooped  out  under  the  boards.  He  occupies  this 
recess  during  an  artillery  bombardment  and  uses  the 
standing  trench  for  firing.  Fig.  27  shows  a  somewhat 


Firing 


FIG.    27.       PARAPET    SHELTER 

more  elaborate  form,  designated  a  parapet  shelter. 
The  wooden  platform  provides  a  continuous  firing  step. 
Such  overhead  cover  contains  from  one  to  two  feet  of 
earth  and  is  known  as  a  splinter-proof.  A  bomb-proof 
is  built  to  resist  high  explosive  shell,  and  is  roofed  with 
heavy  timbers  covered  with  six  to  twenty  feet  of  earth. 
Broken  stone  covered  with  earth  is  also  used  for  over- 
head cover. 

The  highest  type  of  firing  trench  is  one  completely 
roofed  over  by  splinter-proof  construction,  loopholed 
to  the  front,  and  accessible  by  stairs  or  communicating 
trenches  to  the  rear.  (Fig.  28.) 

Firing  trenches  which  are  liable  to  be  rushed,  or 
from  which  a  charge  is  to  be  made,  must  be  constructed 
without  head  or  overhead  cover.  Otherwise  the  troops 
will  find  it  impossible  to  leave  the  trench  in  a  body  to 


118  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE  ENGINEER 

make  a  rush,  and  they  will  be  caught  like  rats  in  a  trap 
by  a  successful  charge  of  the  enemy.  A  man  in  even 
an  open  trench  is  at  a  considerable  disadvantage 


FIG.    28.      FIRING    TRENCH    WITH    OVERHEAD    COVER 

against  an  enemy  with  a  bayonet  who  reaches  the  crest 
above  him,  but  if  inclosed  by  overhead  cover,  the  en- 
tire garrison  of  a  trench  may  be  annihilated  by  hand 
grenades  thrown  through  the  loop  holes.  The  Japanese 
battle  regulations  specify  that  the  defender  shall  not 
await  the  final  rush  to  the  edge  of  the  trench,  but  shall 
leave  his  trench  and  counter-charge  with  the  bayonet 
as  soon  as  the  obstacles  are  passed.  Egress  from  firing 
trenches  to  the  front  may  be  facilitated  by  digging  a 
couple  of  steps  in  the  front  face  and  setting  a  stake  in 
the  parapet,  to  be  grasped  by  the  hand  in  climbing 


FIELD    FORTIFICATIONS 


99 


out.  Unless  some  such  device  is  constructed,  much  val- 
uable time  may  be  lost  in  commencing  a  charge. 

Cover  trenches  are  provided  for  troops  in  reserve, 
and  may  be  entirely  inclosed,  with  no  facilities  for 
firing,  and  connected  by  communicating  trenches  with 
the  firing  line.  (Fig.  29.)  In  a  cover  trench  occupied 


9  "to  12  "Eorrh 
2"5tlcks  ^ 
I  "Planks  O 


FIG.    29.       COVER    TRENCH 

by  troops  on  duty  only,  as  in  a  combined  fire  and  cover 
trench,  six  square  feet  of  floor  area  must  be  allowed 
for  each  man.  For  more  continuous  occupancy,  twelve 
square  feet,  and  for  habitation  of  long  duration, 
eighteen  to  twenty  square  feet,  are  required.  The 
thickness  of  overhead  cover  required  depends  upon  the 
nature  of  the  fire  it  will  have  to  resist.  It  may  vary 
therefore  from  a  splinter-proof  roof  one  foot  thick  to 
a  bomb-proof  of  any  desired  depth.  Points  whose  pro- 
tection is  of  the  greatest  importance,  as  telephone  cen- 
tral stations  and  posts  of  important  commanders,  may 
be  placed  from  thirty  to  forty  feet  underground. 
Communicating  trenches  are  constructed  in  zig-zags 


100 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


to  prevent  enfilade,  and  lead  from  the  cover  to  the 
fire  trenches.  They  are  built  very  narrow  and  deep, 
with  passing  points  hollowed  out  of  the  walls  at  fre- 
quent intervals.  The  excavated  earth  is  piled  up  011 
both  sides,  to  reduce  the  amount  of  digging,  and  at 
the  junctions  of  the  diagonals  are  located  short 
stretches  of  trench  (returns),  in  which  are  located  the 
first-aid  dressing  stations  and  the  sanitary  arrange- 
ments. All  earth  must  be  disguised  to  resemble  the 
surroundings. 

Machine  gun  emplacements  are  located  at  frequent 
intervals  along  the  line,  the  intention  being  to  move 
the  guns  from  one  emplacement  to  another  as  their 
effectiveness  can  be  thus  increased,  and  as  the  enemy 's 
fire  becomes  too  severe  for  them  in  other  locations. 
Fig.  30  shows  a  typical  machine  gun  emplace- 
ment. When  this  type  is  used,  however,  it  has  been 


ELCVATIOr 
FIG.   30.      PLAN  OF   MACHINE  GUN  EMPLACEMENT 


FIELD    FORTIFICATIONS 


1.01 


found  that  the  enemy  will  concentrate  his  fire  upon  the 
machine  guns  and  put  them  out  of  commission  at  the 
first.  The  method  now  recommended  is  to  place  the 


o.o 


DETAIL 


PLAN 

FIG.    31.      MACHINE   GUN  EMPLACEMENT 

machine  guns  behind  a  strong  parapet,  with  no  facili- 
ties for  frontal  fire.  From  behind  the  flanks  of  this 
protection,  which  is  only  slightly  higher  than  the  firing 
parapet,  they  cover  the  space  between  emplacements 
by  a  cross-fire.  (Fig.  31) . 

Gun  cover  is  secured  by  two  methods,  epaulments 
and  pits.  In  the  former,  a  low  parapet  is  constructed 
in  front,  to  fill  the  space  between  the  ground  and  the 
gun  shield,  higher  embankments  on  the  sides,  and 
trenches  in  the  rear  for  the  gun  crew.  A  trench  is 
usually  provided  for  the  ammunition,  of  which  a  large 
stock  must  be  on  hand  if  a  heavy  fire  is  to  be  main- 
tained. If  the  fire  is  to  be  delivered  at  a  high  angle, 
the  gun  may  be  sunk  into  the  ground,  and  a  long  slop- 


102  PHEPAHEDNES13   AND   THE  ENGINEER 

ing  trench  dug  in  prolongation  of  the  barrel.  The 
excavated  earth  is  piled  on  the  sides,  as  the  shield 
usually  suffices  for  frontal  cover. 

CONCEALMENT   OF   FIELD   WORKS. 

Concealment  is  now  considered  of  prime  importance 
in  the  location  and  construction  of  field  fortifications. 
In  fact,  troops  that  are  well  hidden  from  the  enemy  are 
probably  safer  than  those  which  are  sheltered  in  strong 
works  but  still  under  his  observation. 

Disguising. 

The  sky  line  must  be  avoided,  as  it  is  practically  im- 
possible to  treat  the  outlines  of  the  parapet  so  as  to  dis- 
guise its  real  identity.  Also,  regular  outlines  and  par- 
ticularly the  abrupt  ending  of  a  parapet,  tend  to  betray 
the  position  of  a  work.  A  safe  rule  to  be  followed  is 
that  the  natural  appearance  of  the  terrain  is  to  be 
changed  as  little  as  possible.  Concealment  is  therefore 
facilitated  by  surpressing  the  parapet,  making  it  con- 
form to  the  general  shape  of  the  ground,  and  narrowing 
the  trench  on  a  forward  slope,  so  that  its  rear  edge  is 
not  visible  over  the  parapet.  Sod  over  the  space  which 
will  be  occupied  by  the  trench  and  parapet  should  be 
removed  and  carefully  replaced  over  the  complete  para- 
pet, so  as  to  hide  the  fresh  earth.  This  is  best  accom- 
plished by  cutting  the  sod  in  strips  and  rolling  it 
towards  the  enemy,  afterwards  rolling  it  back  over  the 
parapet.  In  this  connection  it  should  be  remarked  that 
the  mere  covering  of  the  parapet  with  material  of  the 
same  color  as  the  surroundings  does  not  necessarily  con- 
ceal it,  as  its  apparent  color  to  the  enemy  may  appear 
quite  different  when  viewed  on  the  steep  slopes  of  the 
parapet  and  on  the  adjacent  level  ground,  owing  to  the 
varying  light  reflections. 

The  transplanting  of  small  trees,  bushes,  etc.,  which 


FIELD   FORTIFICATIONS  103 

must  be  placed  in  front  of  rather  than  on  the  parapet, 
will  aid  concealment,  but  the  scattering  of  leaves, 
branches,  etc.,  over  the  earth,  or  the  sticking  of  limbs  of 
trees  into  it,  are  worse  than  useless,  as  the  fresh  vegeta- 
tion soon  withers  and  renders  the  position  more  con- 
spicuous than  before.  Dead  leaves,  twigs,  etc.,  are  ex- 
cellent, provided  the  surrounding  earth  is  covered  with 
the  same  material.  It  goes  without  saying  that  neigh- 
boring patches  of  ground  should  not  be  denuded  of  sod 
and  rendered  highly  conspicuous  in  order  to  provide 
covering  for  the  parapet. 

Dummy  Trenches  are  a  very  useful  adjunct  to  con- 
cealment, as  directing  the  attention  of  the  enemy  away 
from  the  occupied  works.  They  are  most  effective  when 
they  present  the  appearance  of  real  trenches  ineffect- 
ually concealed  rather  than  excavations  made  without 
any  attempt  at  hiding  them.  In  short,  the  enemy's  at- 
tention must  not  be  too  expressly  invited  to  them.  The 
turning  over  of  a  two-foot  strip  of  sod,  with  perhaps  a 
foot  of  excavation  at  the  rear  edge,  will  usually  be  suf- 
ficient. Dummy  trenches  must  not  be  placed  where 
fire  directed  at  them  will  endanger  the  true  position. 

Dummy  artillery  positions  are  sometimes  prepared 
with  considerable  care,  and  are  very  effective  when 
the  details  are  well  carried  out.  According  to  a 
recent  British  publication,  an  excellent  Quaker  gun 
may  be  made  from  a  section  of  a  telegraph  pole  and  the 
fore  truck  of  a  farm  wagon,  with  boards  for  gun 
shields.  If  at  intervals  a  couple  of  ounces  of  gunpow- 
der are  placed  on  a  tin  shelf  at  the  muzzle,  and  fired 
electrically,  especially  at  the  same  time  a  real  gun  is 
fired  elsewhere,  the  enemy  may  be  tempted  to  waste 
many  rounds  of  perfectly  good  live  shell. 

Concealment  from  Aerial  Observers.  It  has  been 
found  from  the  present  war  that  nearly  all  trenches  are 
easily  visible  to  the  enemy's  air  scouts,  but  if  care  has 
been  taken  to  remove  from  the  adjacent  ground  all 


104  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE   ENGINEER 

prominent  marks  by  which  the  observer  can  locate  the 
trenches  to  the  gunners,  the  latter  will  have  consider- 
able difficulty  in  getting  on  the  target  from  the  observ- 
er 's  description.  All  prominent  trees  or  clumps  of 
vegetation,  buildings,  light-colored  rocks,  wind-mills, 
etc.,  that  might  thus  serve  as  reference  points  should  be 
avoided  in  locating  the  trenches,  or  cleared  away  from 
the  vicinity. 

While  the  trenches  are  usually  seen  without  diffi- 
culty, it  is  hard  to  determine,  from  the  height  at  which 
the  reconnaissance  must  be  made,  whether  or  not  they 
are  occupied.  The  straw  which  is  sometimes  placed  in 
the  bottom  of  trenches  to  protect  the  feet  of  the  men 
from  wet  ground  adds  greatly  to  their  visibility  and 
aids  in  ascertaining  their  occupancy.  The  paths  which 
may  be  worn  to  a  trench  or  more  particularly  to  a  gun 
position  often  result  in  the  betrayal  of  a  work  which 
would  otherwise  escape  notice.  Also,  the  absence  of 
such  paths  to  an  otherwise  obvious  gun  position  may 
proclaim  the  latter  as  a  dummy. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

OBSTACLES. 

Fire  action  alone  will  not  stop  a  determined  enemy. 
It  has  been  found  that  troops  will  not  remain  to  meet 
a  charge  if  it  advances  too  close  for  comfort.  There- 
fore some  obstacle  must  be  presented  to  an  advance  be- 
yond a  certain  point.  Natural  obstacles  may  be  taken 
advantage  of  where  encountered,  but  these  are  not  plen. 
tiful,  and  are  seldom  situated  where  they  can  be  effect- 
ively used. 

Obstacles  must  not  be  constructed  as  part  of  the  de- 
fensive works  of  a  position  without  the  authority  of  the 
officer  commanding  the  section  of  line,  as  they  may  in- 
terfere seriously  with  contemplated  movements  of  the 
defending  troops,  when  a  change  is  to  be  made  to  the 
offensive.  Furthermore,  obstacles  should  not  be  made 
continuous  along  the  entire  front,  as  they  will  prevent 
counter-attacks  and  the  resumption  of  the  offensive  by 
our  own  troops.  The  gaps  are  swept  by  concentrated 
fire  from  machine  guns  and  specially  designated  units. 
When  openings  are  left  in  this  manner,  the  way  of  ap- 
proach of  the  enemy  is  in  a  measure  predetermined,  as 
attacking  troops  will  always  crowd  towards  the  gaps. 
Care  must  be  taken  that  works  otherwise  well  concealed 
are  not  betrayed  by  the  obstacles  erected  to  protect 
them. 

Barrier  Obstacles.  To  be  effective  an  obstacle  must 
be  concealed  from  the  enemy,  it  must  not  afford  any 
cover  to  an  attacking  force  nor  obstruct  the  fire  of  the 
defense,  and  it  must  be  difficult  of  destruction.  Ob- 
stacles are  best  located  at  a  short  distance  in  front  of 
the  parapet.  This  distance  varies  considerably  as 

105 


106  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

recommended  in  the  service  manuals,  50  to  100  yards 
being  usual,  but  with  the  short  field  of  fire  allowed  by 
approved  practice  in  the  present  war,  this  figure  may 
be  materially  reduced.  Some  photographs  of  actual 
works  shows  the  obstacles  placed  against  the  parapet. 
It  is  said,  however,  that  such  close  proximity  is  objec- 
tionable, as  it  permits  the  enemy 's  grenade  throwers  to 
approach  at  night  and  bombard  the  trench. 

Some  types  of  obstacles  are  shown  in  Fig.  32,  which 
is  reproduced  from  the  Engineer  Field  Manual,  U.  S. 
Army.  The  abatis  consists  of  large  branches  of  trees, 
which  are  trimmed  of  all  foliage  and  small  limbs,  their 
ends  sharpened,  and  then  laid  in  several  rows,  the 
pointed  ends  towards  the  enemy.  The  butts  are  firmly 
staked  down  and  barbed  wire  is  interlaced  among  the 
branches.  An  abatis  is  easily  destroyed  by  artillery 
fire  unless  concealed  in  a  natural  depression  or  a  ditch. 
It  may  also  be  protected  by  raising  an  embankment 
in  front  of  it,  with  a  long  sloping  glacis  towards  the 
enemy. 

A  slashing  is  a  quick  substitute  for  an  abatis, 
by  cutting  trees  nearly  through  and  felling  them 
towards  the  enemy.  This,  however,  is  liable  to  afford 
too  much  cover  to  the  attack  unless  swept  by  cross-fire. 

A  palisade  is  a  strong  fence.  It  must  not  be  made 
of  poles  large  enough  to  give  protection  to  a  man,  and 
it  must  be  securely  set  in  the  ground.  This  is  best 
accomplished  by  burying  the  butts  of  the  poles  in  a 
trench,  with  stone  wedges  between  the  butts  and  log 
waling  pieces  on  one  or  both  sides.  A  waling  piece 
a,bove  ground  assists  materially  in  scaling  the  obstacle, 
but  strands  of  barbed  wire  at  the  top  add  to  its  ef- 
fectiveness. 

A  f  raise  is  a  horizontal  palisade  or  wire  fence  built 
out  from  the  scarp  or  counterscarp  of  a  ditch. 

"Roads  may  be  closed,  especially  against  cavalry,  by 
chevaux  de  frise,  which  are  obstacles  built  in  "saw- 


OBSTACLES 


107 


^T^V 

FIG.  32.   OBSTACLES 


108  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE   ENGINEER 

buck"  form.  They  are  constructed  in  sections  and 
chained  together.  The  figure  shows  how  they  may  be 
built  up  of  dimension  lumber.  Cavalry  may  also  be 
stopped  by  setting  railway  ties  in  the  ground  and  spik- 
ing a  rail  along  their  tops  four  or  five  feet  from  the 
ground. 

If  the  topography  permits,  a  very  good  obstacle  may 
be  formed  by  flooding  the  ground  immediately  in  front 
of  the  works.  This  may  be  impracticable,  however, 
on  account  of  the  labor  involved. 

At  the  bottom  of  Fig.  32  are  shown  two  types  of 
obstacles  used  during  the  Russo-Japanese  War.  The 
Russian  type,  consisting  of  heavy  timber  trestles,  was 
prepared  behind  the  lines  and  carried  out  in  place. 
The  Japanese  obstacle  was  constructed  by  sticking 
light  poles  into  the  ground  and  wiring  them  together 
where  they  crossed,  or  by  treating  in  the  same  manner 
the  trunks  of  young  trees  growing  in  place. 

The  wire  entanglement  has  come  to  be  accepted  as 
the  standard  form  of  obstacle,  and  possesses  many  ad- 
vantages over  most  other  types.  It  cannot  be  easily 
destroyed  by  artillery,  it  is  extremely  difficult  of  pas- 
sage, affords  no  cover  to  the  assault,  is  not  conspicuous 
at  any  distance,  and  is  fairly  rapM  of  construction. 
Fig.  33  shows  a  common  type,  two  panels  wide.  Note 
the  great  difference  in  the  size  of  the  openings  left  by 
staggering  the  center  row  of  posts  as  against  placing 
them  rectangularly.  The  wires  must  be  strung  loosely, 
as  they  are  thus  loss  easily  cut  by  blows  from  a  bayonet 
or  machete.  Xo  horizontal  wires  are  placed  on  top,  so 
that  any  attempt  at  crossing  the  entanglements  on 
planks  or  ladders  will  be  defeated  by  their  tipping 
over. 

In  the  European  War,  it  has  been  found  that  the 
noise  of  driving  posts  for  entanglements  at  night  will 
draw  a  heavy  fire  upon  the  working  party,  so  it  has 
been  the  practice  to  construct  wooden  forms  or  trestles 


OBSTACLES 


109 


inside  the  works,  string  them  with  barbed  wire,  and 
place  them  in  position  at  night.  They  are  chained  or 
lashed  together,  and  are  sometimes  anchored  back  to 
the  trench,  to  prevent  the  enemy  ?s  hauling  them  away 
by  means  of  grapnels. 


Incorrect. 


Correct, 


V ///////// f ////////  •'/ •*////,  .•'•'. 

FIG.     33.      WIRE    ENTANGLEMENTS 

Destroying  Obstacles.  Wire  entanglements  are  de- 
stroyed by  cutting  the  wires  with  clippers  or  bayonets, 
or  by  throwing  a  heavy  grapnel  over  them  by  means 
of  a  trench  mortar  and  hauling  it  back.  A  pole  con- 
taining a  chain  of  dynamite  cartridges  may  be  laid 
or  thrown  across  the  entanglement  and  the  charges  ex- 
ploded. This  will  cut  all  the  wires  in  contact  with 
the  pole,  but  little  progress  can  be  made  in  this  way 
towards  the  destruction  of  the  entire  obstacle,  and  the 
opening  of  one  passage  will  cause  an  attacking  force  to 
concentrate  and  offer  an  excellent  target  for  machine 
guns. 


110  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE  ENGINEER 

An  abatis  or  slashing  is  attacked  by  cutting  the  in- 
terlaced wires  with  pliers,  opening  up  a  way  through 
the  obstacle,  and  attacking  it  in  the  rear  with  axes.  The 
branches  may  be  easily  cut  from  the  rear,  pulled  out 
of  the  abatis  and  cast  into  piles.  A  long  string  of  ex- 
plosives on  a  pole,  as  described  above,  will  be  useful  in 
effecting  the  first  breach. 

Palisades,  fraises,  and  chevaux  de  frise  are  attacked 
by  axes.  They  are  more  easily  destroyed  under  fire 
than  the  other  types  described.  At  night,  parties  may 
pile  brush  around  them  and  set  it  afire.  Floods  may 
be  reduced  by  cutting  the  dam  which  backs  up  the 
water,  if  it  can  be  reached,  or  by  opening  an  outlet 
for  the  water  to  lower  ground.  When  very  low  lands 
are  flooded  by  cutting  ocean  dikes,  as  in  Belgium, 
there  is  little  that  can  be  done  except  to  attack  with 
boats  and  rafts,  by  night. 

Flares  and  Alarm  Signals.  As  most  attempts  at  cut- 
ting obstacles  will  be  made  at  night,  some  form  of  alarm 
must  be  provided  to  warn  the  defenders.  The  best 
of  these  burst  into  fire  and  not  only  give  a  signal  but 
illuminate  the  obstacles  sufficiently  to  guide  the  fire 
of  the  defense.  They  are  usually  operated  by  trip  or 
cut  wires.  The  former  operate  by  the  enemy 's  pulling 
or  tripping  over  them,  the  latter  by  being  cut  and  re- 
leasing a  weight,  which,  in  falling,  actuates  the  alarm. 
Some  signals  are  arranged  to  operate  either  upon  a 
pull  or  by  the  slacking  of  the  alarm  wire.  The  weight 
may  be  attached  to  a  cord  which  will  pull  the  trigger 
of  a  rifle,  or  may  fall  upon  a  cartridge.  A  shot,  how- 
ever, is  not  sufficient  where  shots  are  being  constantly 
fired,  and  the  same  apparatus  may  be  made  to  ignite 
a  flare  by  inserting  an  instantaneous  fuse  in  the  cart- 
ridge and  leading  it  to  a  heap  of  gunpowder  in  a  pre- 
pared bonfire.  The  latter,  if  intended  to  remain  for 
some  time,  must  be  roofed  over  with  canvas  or  boards. 
Where  entanglements  are  close,  pieces  of  tin  and  iron 


OBSTACLES 


111 


may  be  hung  upon  the  wires,  to  rattle  when  disturbed. 
When  the  alarm  has  once  been  given,  a  flare  consisting 
of  a  rag  ball,  wound  upon  a  wood  block,  saturated 
with  oil  and  rolled  in  gunpowder,  may  be  fired  from 
the  trench  by  a  gas  pipe  cannon,  using  a  small  pro- 
pelling charge  of  powder.  This  will  burn  for  a  short 
time  and  disclose  the  nature  of  an  attack.  For  more 
complete  illumination,  bonfires  may  be  ignited  from 
the  trenches  by  electricity  or  an  instantaneous  fuse. 
They  should  of  course  be  screened  to  prevent  lighting 
up  the  trenches. 

No  form  of  automatic  alarm  must  be  allowed  to  take 
the  place  of  alertness  on  the  part  of  the  defense. 

Land  mines  are  temporarily  effective  as  an  obstacle. 
They  are  planted  in  several  lines  and  usually  fired 
electrically  by  successive  rows.  A  land  mine  proper 
is  exploded  as  the  enemy  crosses  it,  a  fougasse  is  ar- 
ranged to  blow  stones  in  the  face  of  a  charging  enemy. 
(Fig.  34).  Mines  must  not  be  so  heavily  charged  that 


FIG.    34.      LAND    MINE   AND   FOUGASSE 

their  craters  will  offer  cover  to  advancing  troops,  but 
unless  the  charge  is  heavy,  their  actual  execution  will 
be  small.  The  effect  of  land  mines,  therefore,  is  mainly 
moral,  it  being  difficult  to  send  troops  across  a  field 
known  or  supposed  to  be  mined,  or  in  which  mines 
have  been  exploded.  To  determined  troops,  however, 


112  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE   ENGINEER 

they  cannot  be  relied  upon  to  furnish  a  permanent 
barrier. 

Fig.  35  shows  the  explosion  of  a  row  of  land  mines 
laid  by  the  engineers  at  the  ' '  Battle  of  Martins  Moun- 
tain/' during  the  Fishkill  Plains  maneuvers  of  the 
First  Brigade,  N.  G-.  N.  Y.,  season  of  1915.  The 
trenches  in  the  foreground  were  occupied  by  the  71st 
N.  Y.  Infantry,  part  of  the  defending  troops. 


FIG.    35.      LAND    MINES 

TABLE  OF  MEN,  TIME,  AND  TOOLS  * 
REQUIRED  FOR  THE  EXECUTION  OF  CERTAIN  FIELD-WORKS. 

Note. — Except  where  otherwise  stated,  the  material 
and  tools  are  assumed  to  be  on  the  site  of  the  work. 
All  tracing  and  marking  is  to  be  done  before  the 
distribution  of  the  working  parties  at  the  sites.  Not 
more  than  five  minutes  should  be  consumed  in  dis- 
tributing the  men  or  in  changing  reliefs,  if  the  men 
have  been  told  off  into  suitable  groups  or  parties 
under  leaders  previously  instructed  in  the  nature  of 
the  particular  works  in  hand.  One  leader  or  foreman 
can  conveniently  supervise  up  to  twenty  unskilled  men 
on  earth-work. 


*From   the   British    Manual   of  Field   Engineering. 


OBSTACLES 


113 


No. 

Nature  of  Work. 

Minutes 
of  One 
Manj 

PerUnit 
of  Task. 

Suitable 
Unit 
Party. 

i 

Tools  per  Party. 

ENTRENCHING. 

1 

Excavation  only. 

3 

1  cub.  ft. 

1 

1  shovel  and 

1  pick 

2 

Ditto,    in    small 

9 

1  cub.  ft. 

1 

Ditto 

recesses,    shel- 

ters, etc  

3 

Shovelling   loose 

1 

1  cub.  ft. 

1 

1  shovel 

earth  

4 

Removing      fifty 

yards    (ave- 

2 

1  cub.  ft. 

1 

1  barrow 

rage)    deposit, 

1 

1  cub.  ft. 

2 

1  stretcher 

and  return  .  .  . 

5 

Filling  sand-bags 

3 

1  s  a  n  d- 

3 

2  shovels 

bag 

6 

Head  cover,  sand- 

60 

1  1  o  o  p- 

1 

1  shovel 

bags  or  sods.  . 

hole 

7 

Overhead    cover, 

60 

1  rifle 

1 

1   shovel,    1 

added  to  head 

hand-axe 

cover  in  a  re- 

cess   

REVETMENTS. 

8 

B  r  ushwood, 

l1/^ 

1  sq.  ft. 

2 

1  bill  hook, 

rough  or  planks 

(Revet- 

1 mallet 

9 

Sand  -  bags      o  r 

ted) 

sack   

3 

1  SQ.  ft. 

o 

10 

Sods,    building 

1  sq.ft.? 

2 

1  shovel    or 

with    

gj 

spade 

11 

Sods,     provision 

1  sq.ft.* 

3 

3  sharp 

of  (for  above) 

spades 

CUTTING   AND 

FELLING. 

12 

Trees,  felling,  up 
to  12  in.  diam. 

1 

1    in.    of 
diam. 

1 

1  felling  axe 

or  saw 

r 

10  bill-hooks 

4     felling 

axes 

13 

Woods,    clearing 

2% 

1  sq.  yd. 

20  -j 

4  hand  axes, 

of    brushwood 

2  saws 

and  small  trees 

1  grindstone 

2  whet- 

114 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


No. 

Nature  of  Work. 

Miautes 
of  One 
Man. 

Per  Unit 
of  Task. 

Suitable 
Unit 
Party. 

Tools  per  Party. 

14 

CUTTING     AND 
FELLING. 
Hedges     (felling 
stems)   

10 

1  yd.  run 

o 

1   bill   hook 

15 

Brick  wall,  not- 
ches in  up  to 
18  in  

10 

1  notch. 

1 

or     hand- 
axe. 
1  saw,  3  fa- 
thoms rope 
1  pick  crow- 
bar,      or 

17 

OBSTACLES. 
Abatis,  and  wired 
(one  strong 
row)    

120 

1  yd.  run 

L>() 

mason's 
chisel  and 
hammer 
As  for  item 
13  ;  also  2 
mauls,     3 

18 

Wire     Kntangle- 

60 

1  sq.  yd. 

3  •* 

• 

pr.  pliers, 
1  pickaxe, 
1  shovel 
1    bill-hook, 
1      hand- 
s  a  w,       1 
maul,    1 
pr.  pliers, 
1  pr.  wire- 
cutters. 
3    rag   pads 
for     grip- 

ping   and 
straining 
wire. 
In  hard 
ground  add  : 
1  steel 
jumper 
1  sledge- 
hammer 

CHAPTER  X. 
SIEGE  WORKS. 

Investment  of  a  fortified  place  is  accompanied  by 
various  activities  which,  on  account  of  the  time  re- 
quired, have  no  place  in  ordinary  field  works.  Siege 
operations  comprise  defensive  cover  for  the  attackers, 
mines  for  the  destruction  of  the  defenders '  works  and 
saps  to  bring  the  attacking  forces  within  assaulting 
distance. 

Sapping.  A  sap  is  a  zig-zag  trench  approaching  the 
point  of  attack.  (Fig.  36).  It  may  be  right-handed 
or  left -handed,  according  to  whether  it  gains  ground 
to  the  right  or  left;  and  single  or  double,  according 
to  whether  it  is  driven  by  one  man,  heaping  the  exca- 
vated earth  on  the  side  nearest  the  enemy,  or  by  two 
men  working  side  by  side,  and  heaping  the  earth  on 
both  sides.  The  latter  is  the  usual  form  near  the  enemy, 
where  both  sides  must  be  protected,  and  in  this  case  the 
sap  is  pushed  forward  as  a  double  trench,  the  tongue  of 
earth  between  being  removed  by  soldiers  following  the 
sappers,  similarly  to  the  progressive  order  of  exca- 
vation followed  in  tunneling. 

Sapping  is  begun  from  the  first  parallel,  which  is  a 
firing  trench  established  as  near  as  practicable  to  the 
enemy's  works.  A  sap  should  not  extend  more  than 
about  100  feet  without  a  change  of  direction,  and  each 
branch  should  cover  the  head  of  the  preceding  branch 
by  overrunning  it  several  feet.  When  a  point  five  or 
six  hundred  feet  from  the  enemy  is  reached  the  second 
parallel  is  constructed,  and  from  this  a  heavy  rifle 
and  machine  gun  fire  is  kept  up  to  protect  the  sapping 

115 


116  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE   ENGINEER 

operations.  The  third  parallel  is  placed  about  half 
way  between  the  second  and  the  point  of  attack,  and 
an  assault  will  usually  be  made  from  this  location, 


Enerny*s    Line 


2n^  Parallel 


5  Parallel 


FIG.     36.      APPROACH    BY    SAPPING 

though  it  may  sometimes  be  necessary  to  carry  the 
work  still  further. 

As  the  enemy's  works  are  approached  more  closely, 
the  inclination  of  the  saps  becomes  flatter  and  flatter, 


SIEGE  WORKS 


117 


to  avoid  enfilade.  Finally,  protection  must  be  ob- 
tained by  rolling  a  pile  of  sand  bags  ahead  of  the  sap 
and  by  the  use  of  overhead  traverses.  These  are  con- 
structed by  placing  boards  across  the  sap  and  covering 

Sandbags^ 


Sap 

>>  >>S>>>>>^ 

Protection  from  Enfilade. 


'/ 
5 and  Bags*--—* 


Parallel 

FIG.    37.      A   SAP 

them  with  sand  bags.  They  must  be  so  spaced  that  a 
shot  clearing  one  will  be  intercepted  by  the  next.  (Fig 
37 ) .  This  distance  is  made  less  as  the  work  proceeds,, 


118  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE   ENGINEER 

and  finally  the  sap  becomes  a  covered  way.    Further 
advance  must  then  be  made  by  mining  operations. 

Mining  comprises  underground  approaches  for  the 
purpose  of  placing  and  firing  charges  of  explosives 
under  the  enemy 's  works.  A  mine  consists  of  a  shaft, 
sunk  vertically,  and  one  or  more  galleries,  driven  hori- 


W#WVtf^^ 

FIG.    38.      MINE 

zontally.  (Fig.  38).  If  the  gallery  can  be  started 
from  a  ditch,  bank  or  hillside,  the  shaft  may  be  dis- 
pensed with,  and  much  trouble  avoided  in  carrying 
the  alignment  underground. 

Mines  must  be  driven  in  earth.  Drilling  and  blast- 
ing operations  are  impracticable  with  the  equipment 
ordinarily  available,  and  the  approach  of  the  mine 
would  be  known  to  the  enemy  long  before  it  was  ready 
for  use.  Nearly  all  the  work,  therefore,  must  be  pro- 
tected against  caving,  and  the  timbering  calls  for  all 
the  skill  of  the  miner  and  tunnel  worker.  Difficult 
soil  is  often  encountered,  and  full  sheeting  of  the 
shafts  and  galleries  is  the  rule  rather  than  the  ex- 
ception. Timbering  is  accomplished  by  the  method 
of  frames  and  sheeting  if  the  earth  is  unstable,  or  by 
cases  where  it  will  stand  long  enough  to  allow  their 
being  placed  in  position.  (Fig.  39). 


SIEGE  WORKS 


110 


The  alignment  of  a  mine  involves  quite  complicated 
underground  surveying,  and  must  never  be  placed  in 
charge  of  other  than  an  experienced  officer.  For 
changes  of  direction  bevels  are  made  above  ground 


FIG. 


MINE    TIMBERING 


from  strips  of  board,  and  applied  to  the  angle  as  laid 
out  in  the  mine.  In  fact,  the  operations  of  mining, 
timbering  and  alignment  conform-  so  closely  to 
civilian  mining  practice  that  it  is  usually  sufficient  to 
point  out  the  purpose  to  be  accomplished  and  turn  the 
work  over  to  officers  and  men  experienced  along  this 
line. 

When  the  mine  is  completed,  the  charge  is  placed, 
the  officer  directing  the  work  being  designated  to  per- 
form this  duty  personally.  The  amount  of  explosive 
used  must  be  sufficient,  for  while  some  is  wasted  if  an 
overcharge  is  placed,  it  will  all  be  wasted  if  the  mine 
fails  of  its  purpose  from  undercharging.  The  plug, 
usually  of  sand  bags,  is  placed,  and  troops  are  massed 
in  the  last  parallel  for  an  assault.  These  troops  rush 


120 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE   ENGINEER 


forward  as  soon  as  the  mine  is  fired,  occupy  the  crater 
and  begin  to  entrench  against  a  counter-attack.  En- 
gineers accompany  the  attack  arid  assist  in  organizing 
the  position  for  defense. 

The  only  defense  against  mines  is  the  countermine. 
(Fig.  40) .  The  sound  of  working  in  earth  can  be  heard 
for  a  distance  of  thirty  to  forty  feet  through  the 
ground,  even  when  care  is  exercised,  and  an  alert 
enemy  will  have  listening  galleries  driven  out  in  front 
of  his  works  and  occupied  by  observers.  When  the 
approach  of  a  hostile  mine  is  detected,  the  listening 
gallery  may  be  converted  into  a  countermine  by  charg- 
ing it  and  exploding  it  when  the  attacking  heading 
comes  within  its  radius  of  rupture. 


%1%\  p'^^^^  % 

%<-'''\  W&-        -•''''''  '      ''.'''. /:-V-v'     '':  .'•'•'  ':•/.'•'.'•''.' '-.'"''       •    :  1\  &:•. 

'/.-:     •'/.I     '/•'•  -'/A  if  A 


Countermine  •vy,.*/'*'1 ' 
FIG.     40.       COUNTERMINE 

The  usual  aim  in  countermining  is  to  blow  in  the 
side  of  the  hostile  mine  some  distance  back  from  its 
heading,  so  as  to  destroy  as  long  a  section  as  possible 
of  his  work  and  for  the  reason  that  the  crater  of  the 
countermine  may  be  occupied  by  the  attack,  and 
should  not  therefore  be  formed  near  the  defenders' 
position. 

A  camouflet  is  a  countermine  so  charged  as  to  blow 
in  the  attacking  mine  without  disturbing  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  Hence  no  crater  is  formed. 


SIEGE  WORKS 


121 


Rate  of  Workings.  The  following  table  gives  an  es- 
timate of  the  men  and  tools  required  for  shafts  and 
galleries,  with  the  probable  rate  01  advance  in  good 
soil  : 


KATE  OF  WORKIXG. 


Men.                                              Tools. 

3 
O 

Kind  of  gallery. 

z: 

~ 

1  ^ 

a 

— 

etc. 

£                1  4 

• 

| 

w 

on 

? 

ai 

3 

-            > 

fl»        &        0 

_o 

c 

v 

M 

—     ~*      ^ 

x 

jg 

aj 

* 

« 

O 

fcr 

e 

3  1  1  1  J 

n 

®      2    * 

_ 

- 

—; 

.7 

.~ 

$ 

>-. 

£ 

s     -5?    a 

/. 

0 

= 

— 

»'    i   £  i 

s 

g 

£ 

£ 

i 

j 

IS         O 

O'1  03 

t£ 

S 

£ 

I 

Great     gallery    or 

i 

1    *19     4     2 

1 

]       1 

1 

4 

Common  gallery 

1        4     ...    1 

1 

.) 

i 

1 

i 

1      1 

1 

| 

12 

Half  gallery  

1 

2 

i 

1 

1 

1      1 

1 

1 

16 

Branch  gallery 

1        '''-I      .  .       1 

1 

i 

1 

1 

1       1 

1 

24 

Small  branch  

1        3    ...    1 

1 

..i  2 

1      1 

1 

1 

(30 

^  to 
JB6 

Shaft  1    1       Ii4    ...    1      1 

L^       1      ....      ]        1        1 

] 

1 

1  1. 

i  18 

1         — 

124 

From  Engineer  Field  Manual 


*  Four  of  these  may  be  unskilled  laborers. 

v  Number  required  at  commencement  of  gallery.  Beyond 
4  ft.  add  one  man,  and  one  man  additional  for  every  20  ft.  of 
gallery. 

±  One  mason's  level. 

§  Instead  of  a  truck  a  canvas  bag  may  be  used.  A  large 
hoe  or  drag  may  be  used  to  draw  back  the  earth  from  the 
face  of  the  gallery. 

li  These  numbers  are  for  small  shafts  of  about  2  ft.  by  4 
ft.  L,arge  shafts  require  a  larger  force.  They  advance  at 
about  the  same  rate  as  galleries  of  equal  cross-section. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

DEMOLITIONS. 

An  important  part  of  the  engineer's  work  in  the 
field  is  the  demolition  of  obstacles  or  hindrances  to 
his  own  advance,  and  of  things  which  may  prove  of 
material  assistance  to  the  enemy.  His  two  principal 
agents  are  fire  and  explosives. 

HIGH  EXPLOSIVES. 

Regarding  the  latter,  there  appeared  recently  in 
the  "Columbia  Alumni  News,"  New  York,  Vol.  7,  No. 
20,  Feb.  18,  1916,  page  581.  an  article  on  High  Explo- 
sives by  M.  C.  Whitaker,  Professor  of  Engineering 
Chemistry.  This  article  had  been  delivered  as  an  ad- 
dress to  the  Columbia  Alumni,  and  the  material  is  so 
applicable  to  the  subject  in  hand,  that,  with  the  permis- 
sion of  Prof.  Whitaker,  it  is  here  presented  entire : 

"The  popular  idea  of  an  explosive  is  gunpowder. 
This  is  a  mixture  of  75  per  cent,  saltpeter,  10  per  cent, 
sulphur  and  15  per  cent,  charcoal.  These  substances 
are  carefully  ground  together  and  pressed  into  a  cake. 
After  being  carefully  dried  the  cakes  are  broken  into 
lumps  and  sized  in  order  to  produce  the  different 
grades  of  powder  required.  The  size  of  the  particles 
has  a  direct  bearing  on  the  rate  of  combustion,  and  by 
the  proper  selection  a  suitable  explosive  is  thus  found 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  different  sized  guns, 
ranging  from  small  rifles  to  heavy  mortars. 

Within  the  span  of  our  lives,  however,  the  manufac- 
ture of  explosives  has  undergone  a  great  change.  The 
requirements  for  explosive  powder  and  accuracy  have 
become  more  exacting  as  the  range  of  the  guns  and  the 

122 


DEMOLITIONS  123 

accuracy  of  gun  fire  has  increased.  We  have  been  tre- 
mendously impressed  at  the  reports  of  the  results  of 
the  heavy  artillery  in  the  European  war,  but  it  is 
doubtful  if  the  layman  has  given  much  study  or 
thought  to  the  means  by  which  these  results  have  been 
accomplished.  For  our  purposes  we  may  arrange  ex- 
plosives into  (1)  that  class  of  materials  which  give 
their  explosive  force  through  rapid  combustion,  e.  g., 
gunpowders,  smokeless  powders,  etc.;  (2)  the  class 
which  derives  its  explosive  force  from  detonation,  e.  g., 
nitroglycerine,  guncotton,  picric  acid  and  trinitrotol- 
uol; and  (3)  detonators,  or  those  substances  which  ex- 
plode with  extreme  violence  on  the  application  of  heat 
or  a  shock,  such  as  fulminates. 

Combustibles  and  Detonants. 

The  combustible  explosives  are  sometimes  classed  as 
low  explosives  and  the  detonatable  materials  as  high 
explosives,  and,  again,  the  combustible  explosives  are 
frequently  classed  as  propellants,  while  the  deton- 
atable substances  are  classed  as  disruptive  explosives. 

In  the  old  style  explosives,  such  as  gunpowder,  the 
explosive  constituents  were  mixed  together  as  intimate- 
ly as  possible,  while  in  the  new  type  of  powders  the 
constituents  required  to  produce  an  explosive  effect  are 
contained  in  the  molecules  of  the  chemical  compound. 
This  change  in  the  make-up  of  an  explosive  substance 
has  the  effect  of  increasing  the  speed  with  which  the 
explosive  action  takes  place,  and  fixing  with  accuracy 
and  definiteness  the  composition  of  every  particle  of 
the  explosive  material.  Accurate  control  of  the  com- 
position of  the  explosive,  uniformity  throughout  its 
entire  body  and  the  definiteness  of  its  composition  are 
factors  which  control  the  dependability,  accuracy, 
safety  and  all  other  elements  in  the  modern  practice  of 
gun  fire. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  pressure  exerted  by  the  charge 


124  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE  ENGINEER 

of  exploding  powder  on  the  projectile  must  be  uniform 
for  every  shot,  otherwise  it  would  be  impossible  to  rely 
upon  the  propellant  to  obtain  duplicate  results.  The 
force  of  a  propellant  depends  upon  its  decomposition 
into  gases  at  greatly  elevated  temperatures,  and  the 
pressure  which  is  exerts  upon  the  breech  of  the  gun 
and  the  projectile  is  dependent  both  upon  the  amount 
of  gas  produced  and  the  temperature  generated  by  the 
explosion.  It  is  clear  from  this  that  any  slight  varia- 
tion in  the  composition  of  the  powders  would  result  in 
wide  variations  of  both  temperature  and  pressure.  11 
is  interesting  to  note  what  these  pressures  and  tem- 
peratures actually  are : 

Lbs.  per 
sq.  in.  Temp. 

Gunpowder   30,815     2910°C. 

Nitrocellulose  powders  (U.  S.  A.) . . .  .32,365  2676 °C. 
Ballistite  (nitroglycerine)  34,696  3384°C. 

In  view  of  the  importance  of  the  composition  con- 
trol, it  is  apparent  that  a  great  step  in  advance  was 
made  when  mechanical  mixtures  such  as  gunpowder 
were  replaced  by  explosive  chemical  compounds,  such 
as  nitrocellulose  smokeless  powders.  The  explosion  of 
a  powder  in  the  breech  of  a  gun  for  the  purpose  of 
throwing  the  projectile  is  essentially  an  action  of  rapid 
combustion,  and  is  entirely  different  from  the  detona- 
tion characteristic  of  high  explosives,  such  as  nitro- 
glycerine. If  a  propellant  should  detonate,  it  would  be 
useless  as  a  propellant  and  the  detonation  would  doubt- 
less rupture  the  gun  without  discharging  the  projec- 
tile. It  is  extremely  important,  therefore,  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  powders,  that  the  element  of  detonation  be 
entirely  eliminated. 

The  most  common  form  of  smokeless  powder  is  made 
by  the  treatment  of  cotton  or  some  pure  form  of  cellu- 
lose with  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  sulphuric  acid,  for  the 
formation  of  a  chemical  compound  known  as  nitrocel- 


DEMOLITIONS  125 

lulose.  There  are  several  kinds  of  nitrocellulose,  grad- 
ing from  the  lower  degrees  of  nitration  to  the  higher. 
The  lower  nitrocellulose  compounds  are  known  as  solu- 
ble nitrocellulose,  and  form  the  combustible  class  of 
propellant  explosives.  The  higher  degrees  of  nitration 
give  compounds  known  as  guncotton,  which  are  deton- 
atable  explosives.  This  latter  class  of  compounds,  how- 
ever, is  not  soluble,  and  this  difference  gives  a  clear  line 
of  demarkation  between  those  nitrocelluloses  which 
are  safe  to  use  as  propellant  powders  and  the  other 
class,  which  are  used  as  detonatable  explosives. 

How  Smokeless  Powder  Is  Made. 

The  soluble  nitrocelluloses  are  gelatinized  by  the  use 
of  various  solvents,  such  as  grain  alcohol  mixed  with 
ether  or  with  acetone.  When  the  solvent  is  driven  off 
a  hard,  bone-like  mass  is  left,  which  is  one  of  the  forms 
of  smokeless  powder.  The  explosive  pressure  of  these 
nitrocellulose  gels  may  be  increased  by  the  addition  of 
other  constituents;  for  example,  nitroglycerine  is  fre- 
quently used,  especially  in  the  specifications  of  Eng- 
land and  France.  Some  of  the  powders  now  being  used 
in  Europe  contain  as  high  as  50  per  cent,  of  nitroglyce- 
rine. Under  ordinary  conditions  nitroglycerine  is  a 
highly  detonatable  explosive,  but  when  incorporated 
in  the  nitrocellulose  gel,  it  is  reduced  to  a  condition 
where  it  functions  as  a  combustible  propellant  and  is 
not  detonatable. 

The  nitrocellulose  gel  is  pressed  into  large  cakes 
which  are  transferred  to  a  squirting  press,  similar  to 
that  used  for  squirting  macaroni.  From  this  press  it 
is  squirted  into  continuous  rods  or  fibers  of  any  desired 
shape,  cut  up  into  short  lengths,  carefully  dried  to  re- 
move and  recover  the  last  traces  of  solvent,  and  then 
stored,  ready  for  use. 

Certain  modifications  in  the  formula,  changes  in  the 
shape  and  size  of  the  grains  and  other  alterations  are 


126  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

made  to  meet  the  various  military  and  sporting  require- 
ments. For  example,  the  powder  for  the  sixteen-inch 
coast  defence  guns  comes  in  the  form  of  pieces  approx- 
,  imately  five-eighths  inch  in  diameter  and  two  inches 
I  long,  while  a  sample  of  the  sporting  powder  is  illus- 
trated by  fine  grains  the  size  of  a  mustard  seed. 
-  Stability  is  an  important  consideration  in  the  manu- 
facture of  smokeless  powder,  and  certain  means  have 
been  developed  which  render  them  more  stable  and  less 
liable  to  change  or  deterioration.  One  of  the  most  im- 
portant chemicals,  used  almost  universally  for  this  pur- 
pose, is  di-phenyl-amine,  and  all  smokeless  powders 
contain  approximately  1  per  cent,  of  this  chemical. 
Prior  to  August,  1914,  practically  all  of  the  di-phenyl- 
amine  used  by  all  of  the  nations  of  the  world  was  made 
in  Germany  and  marketed  through  an  English  agency. 
Since  the  German  supply  has  been  cut  off,  the  manu- 
facture of  this  product  has  been  developed  in  this  coun- 
try, and  we  are  now  able  to  supply  our  own  needs. 

High  explosives,  as  a  class,  include  all  of  those  com- 
pounds and  mixtures  which  are  detonatable.  They  are 
used  both  in  engineering  practice  and  for  military  pur- 
poses as  disruptive  agents.  In  engineering  work,  the 
most  common  form  of  disruptive  agent  is  dynamite, 
which  is  a  mixture  of  nitroglycerine  with  some  form 
of  inert  or  active  absorbent  or  carrier  commonly  known 
in  the  dynamite  industry  as  *  *  dope. ' '  The  older  forms 
of  dynamite  were  made  by  soaking  up  the  liquid  nitro- 
glycerine in  infusorial  earth,  sawdust,  wood  fiber  or 
some  such  absorptive  material.  In  the  more  powerful 
dynamites  the  filler  is  also  an  explosive  substance,  such 
as  cotton,  ammonium  nitrate  and  similar  materials. 
Nitroglycerine,  the  basic  explosive  substance  of  dyna- 
mite, is  made  by  the  action  of  a  mixture  of  sulphuric 
and  nitric  acid  on  glycerine.  Glycerine,  as  you  will 
recall,  is  a  by-product  of  the  soap  industry  and  results 
from  the  treatment  of  a  fat  such  as  cottonseed  oil,  corn 


DEMOLITIONS  127 

oil,  tallow,  etc.,  with  an  alkali  to  form  a  soap  and  crude 
glycerine.  The  glycerine  recovered  from  this  opera- 
tion is  carefully  refined  and  purified  for  the  purpose  of 
making  nitroglycerine.  One  of  the  commercial  grades 
is  known  as  dynamite  glycerine.  Liquid  nitroglycerine 
is  an  extremely  dangerous  explosive.  Its  danger  lies 
in  the  fact  that  it  is  easily  detonated  and  explodes  with 
great  violence.  Its  incorporation  with  some  filler,  after 
the  inventions  of  Nobel,  so  that  it  may  be  treated  and 
handled  as  a  solid,  minimized  to  a  great  degree  the  ex- 
plosive danger.  Dynamite  could  not,  however,  be  used 
in  any  operations  such  as  the  filling  of  a  shell,  where  it 
would  be  subjected  to  the  severe  shock  of  firing,  with- 
out great  danger  of  its  detonating.  As  a  consequence, 
it  is  not  possible  to  use  dynamite  as  a  high  explosive 
charge  in  artillery  shells,  whereas  in  engineering  work 
it  is  a  perfectly  satisfactory  and  safe  disruptive  explo- 
sive. 

Guncotton,  that  is  to  say,  the  higher  degrees  of  nitra- 
tion of  ordinary  cellulose,  is  also  an  easily  detonatable 
explosive  and  cannot  be  used  in  any  operations  where 
it  would  be  subjected  to  severe  shock. 

Nitroglycerine  and  guncotton  are  used  in  certain 
classes  of  war  work,  for  bombs,  charging  of  torpedoes, 
etc.,  where  they  are  not  subjected  to  rough  handling  or 
to  the  shock  of  being  discharged  from  a  gun. 

Picric  Acid. 

High  explosives  for  the  charging  of  shells  must 
necessarily  be  selected  from  substances  which  are  de- 
tonatable by  the  use  of  a  proper  detonator,  yet  at  the 
same  time  will  not  be  detonated  when  subjected  to  the 
ordinary  methods  of  military  handling,  and  to  the 
shock  of  being  discharged  from  the  gun.  Detonatable 
explosives  to  meet  those  conditions  are  of  compara- 
tively recent  origin.  The  oldest  compound  applied  for 
this  purpose  is  picric  acid.  The  use  of  this  substance 


128  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE   ENGINEER 

for  loading  shells  was  first  suggested  in  1886  by  Tur- 
pin,  in  France.  The  compound  itself  has  been  well 
known  for  many  years  not  as  an  explosive,  but  as  one 
of  the  simplest  forms  of  a  yellow  dyestuff.  As  a  result 
of  Turpin's  investigations,  picric  acid  has  since  been 
adopted  in  England  under  the  name  of  Lyddite,  in 
France  under  the  name  of  Melinite,  and  the  Japanese 
used  the  compound  effectively  in  the  Russo-Japanese 
\\"t\r  under  the  name  of  Shimose. 

Picric  acid  is  made  by  the  treatment  of  phenol  or 
carbolic  acid  with  a  mixture  of  sulphuric  and  nitric 
acid.  The  product,  a  yellow  crystalline  powder,  is  care- 
fully purified  and  used  either  alone  or  with  other  explo- 
sive compounds  for  shell  charges.  It  is  melted  and 
poured  into  the  shells,  leaving  suitable  space  for  the 
detonating  cap.  It  is  very  stable  to  shock  and  the  most 
powerful  of  the  shell  explosives  of  this  class.  It  has 
some  objectionable  characteristics  in  that  it  is  an  acid 
and  has  a  tendency  to  form  salts  which  are  unstable. 
.Several  fatal  accidents  have  been  traced  to  the  forma- 
tion of  calcium  and  lead  salts,  which  are  especially 
sensitive.  Notwithstanding  these  objections,  however, 
picric  acid  has  proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  important 
and  generally  used  explosives  in  the  present  war,  and 
it  is  being  manufactured  both  in  this  country  and 
abroad  in  enormous  quantities. 

The  phenol,  or  carbolic  acid,  from  which  picric  acid 
is  made  is  obtained  under  ordinary  conditions  from  the 
distillation  of  coal-tar.  The  enormous  demand  for 
picric  acid  under  war  conditions  has  created  a  corres- 
ponding demand  for  phenol,  and  the  price  has  ad- 
vanced from  19  cents  to  $1.50  per  pound.  Phenol  can 
be  made  and  has  been  made  for  a  number  of  years  in 
Germany,  synthetically,  from  benzol,  another  common 
constituent  of  coal-tar.  In  the  manufacture  of  phenol 
the  benzol  is  treated  successively  with  sulphuric  acid, 
lime,  soda  ash,  caustic  potash  or  soda,  with  the  final 


DEMOLITIONS  129 

production  of  crude  phenol.  This  crude  phenol  is  care- 
fully distilled  in  a  vacuum  and  produces  the  chemi- 
cally pure  product,  sample  of  which  is  shown.  A  large 
number  of  synthetic  phenol  plants  have  been  started  in 
the  United  States  since  the  outbreak  of  the  war  in 
Europe,  and  chemical  engineers  have  devoted  a  great 
deal  of  attention  to  the  development  of  this  industry 
in  America. 

T.  N.  T. 

Another  interesting  high  explosive  for  shells,  and 
the  one  which  is  said  to  have  been  so  effective  in  the 
reduction  of  the  forts  at  Liege,  is  tri-nitro-toluol,  com- 
monly known  as  T.N.T.  This  product  is  made  by  the 
nitration  with  a  mixture  of  sulphuric  and  nitric  acid, 
of  toluol,  another  liquid  constituent  of  coal-tar.  The 
increased  demand  for  toluol  has  run  the  price  from  40 
cents  a  gallon  before  the  war  to  as  high  as  $5  or  $6  a 
gallon.  Numerous  processes  have  been  more  or  less 
successfully  developed  for  the  manufacture  of  toluol. 
One  of  the  most  important  of  these  is  our  own  Bittman 
process,  which  is  in  successful  operation  in  Pittsburgh, 
manufacturing  a  mixture  of  toluol  and  benzol. 

T.N.T.  is  a  light  yellowish  solid,  very  stable  to  shocks 
and  abrasions,  and  is  in  every  way  an  ideal  disruptive 
explosive,  although  not  quite  so  powerful  as  picric  acid. 
It  is  non-acid  and  does  not  form  unstable  compounds. 
It  is  practically  impossible  to  explode  a  charge  of 
T.  N.  T.  except  by  the  use  of  powerful  detonators. 

Detonators  are  a  class  of  compounds  which  explode 
with  extreme  violence  and  sharpness.  On  account  of 
their  sharp  explosive  wave,  they  have  the  power  of 
setting  up  a  corresponding  explosive  wave  in  a  large 
number  of  otherwise  more  or  less  stable  substances, 
such  as  trinitrotoluol  and  picric  acid,  and  with  fair 
ease  such  substances  as  nitroglycerine  and  gun-cotton. 
The  class  of  compounds  known  as  metallic  fulminates 


1>n>0  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

are  commonly  used  as  detonators.  The  most  important 
of  these  is  the  fulminate  of  mercury.  This  product  is 
made  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  and  alcohol  on  mer- 
cury. It  is  a  grayish  white  crystalline  powder  and  is 
stored  for  safety  in  small  bags  suspended  in  a  tank  of 
water.  It  detonates  by  shock,  as,  for  example,  by  the 
firing  pin  of  a  gun,  or  by  heat  of  approximately  200 
deg.  C.,  as  by  a  fuse.  Small  charges  of  these  detona- 
tors are  imbedded  in  the  main  explosive  charge,  and 
the  sharp  shock  of  their  explosion  detonates  the  entire 
mass.  It  should  also  be  noted  that  by  the  use  of  these 
detonators  it  is  possible  to  explode  the  shell  either  by 
a  time  fuse  or  by  impact,  and  both  methods  are  used 
according  to  the  character  of  the  operation. 

How  to  Stop  the  War. 

You  have  doubtless  noticed  that  the  same  chemicals 
are  used  in  some  phase  or  other,  in  each  one  of  the 
processes  of  manufacturing  high  explosives,  and 
smokeless  powders.  I  refer  particularly  to  the  use  of 
sulphuric  acid  and  nitric  acid.  Sulphuric  acid  is 
doubtless  the  most  important  of  these,  because  it  is 
essential  not  only  in  making  all  explosives,  but  in  the 
manufacture  of  nitric  acid  itself.  Sulphuric  acid  may 
be  said,  therefore,  to  be  the  basic  chemical  on  which 
the  entire  war  is  dependent,  and  there  is  nothing  which 
would  more  effectively  stop  a  war  than  to  stop  the 
production  of  sulphuric  acid.  The  raw  materials  for 
making  sulphuric  acid  are,  (1)  sulphur,  or  (2)  pyrites, 
or  (3)  sulphur  gases  from  smelting  operations.  The 
sulphur  used  in  America  comes  from  the  deposits  in 
Louisiana  and  Texas,  where  it  literally  flows  from  the 
earth  at  the  rate  of  500  to  1000  tons  per  day  by  the 
famous  Frasch  process.  The  pyrites,  while  produced 
to  a  small  extent  in  this  country,  comes  largely  from 
Spain  or  Portugal.  The  smelter  gases  are  necessarily 
available  only  at  the  points  where  the  smelting  opera- 


DEMOLITIONS  131 

tions  are  carried  out.  It  is  obvious  that  we  would  be 
seriously  handicapped  in  case  the  Spanish  pyrites  sup- 
ply was  cut  off,  and  it  is  even  more  serious  to  note 
that  the  sulphur  deposits  of  Louisiana  and  Texas  are 
both  near  the  coast  and  are  undefended.  The  loss 
of  control  of  these  two  principal  raw  materials  for 
sulphuric  acid  manufacture  would  literally  put  a  stop 
to  ammunition  production  in  this  country. 

Chemical  Preparedness. 

Another  fundamental  raw  material  of  the  explosive 
industry  is  nitric  acid,  which  is  obtained  from  nitrate 
of  soda,  the  sole  source  of  supply  of  which,  for  this 
country,  is  Chili.  No  progress  has  been  made,  and 
very  little  if  any  interest  has  been  shown  in  the  devel- 
opment of  an  independent  self-contained  source  of 
supply  for  nitrates  or  nitric  acid  in  America.  It  is 
clearly  apparent  that  a  few  fast  cruisers  could  cut  off 
our  supply  of  nitrate,  and  the  stock  available  in  this 
country  would  not  enable  us  to  carry  on  a  defensive 
war  more  than  two  or  three  months.  One  might  nat- 
urally ask,  what  is  being  done  to  safeguard  this  country 
against  such  a  contingency,  and  the  answer  is,  nothing. 

The  previous  speaker  referred  to J  certain  influences 
which  appear  in  diplomatic  dealings,  but  it  is  my  be- 
lief that  one  of  the  most  potent  influences  in  a  success- 
ful diplomacy  is  to  be  found  in  the  adequate  and  in- 
telligent solution  of  some  of  the  problems  presented  in 
connection  with  the  industries  now  under  discussion. 
One  of  our  statesmen  has  declared  that  an  army  of  a 
million  men  might  be  provided  in  a  few  days,  but  what 
earthly  good  would  a  million  men  be  if  they  are  not 
provided  with  the  modern  facilities  and  machinery  for 
conducting  a  defense.  The  most  apparent  lesson  to 
be  drawn  from  the  conditions  in  Europe  is  that  there 
is  a  great  deal  in  an  army  besides  men.  The  fact  that 
the  power  of  defence  in  the  United  States  could  be 


132  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

rendered  ineffective  in  two  or  three  months  by  a  few 
warships  stopping  the  supply  of  nitrate  from  Chili, 
taking  possession  of  the  sulphur  deposits  of  Louisiana 
and  Texas,  and  crippling  other  important  industrial 
centers,  is  well  known  in  every  capital  in  Europe,  and 
such  knowledge  does  not  tend  to  add  force  nor  em- 
phasis to  our  diplomatic  notes. 

Germany  has  clearly  indicated  the  solution  of  the 
nitrate  problem.  She  has  been  cut  off  from  the  nitrate 
supply  of  Chili  and  from  the  pyrites  supply  from 
Spain  for  months,  but  long  before  that  condition  de- 
veloped, she  had  worked  out  and  put  into  operation 
within  her  own  borders  processes  for  manufacturing 
nitric  acid  synthetically.  This  result  is  accomplished 
in  Germany  by  three  important  industrial  processes 
which  have  been  developed  within  the  last  ten  or  fifteen 
years:  (1)  The  process  for  the  direct  oxidation  of 
the  nitrogen  of  the  air,  (2)  the  process  of  oxidizing 
ammonia  made  by  the  Haber  method  of  combining  ni- 
trogen and  hydrogen,  in  the  presence  of  catalytic 
agents,  and  (3)  another  process  oxidizing  ammonia 
made  by  the  syanamid  process,  in  which  the  nitrogen 
of  the  air  is  fixed  in  calcium  carbide,  and  later  con- 
verted into  ammonia.  The  power  of  Germany  would 
have  been  broken  months  ago,  had  it  not  been  for  the 
foresight  and  the  skill  required  to  provide  an  inde- 
pendent supply  of  the  fundamental  chemicals  required 
in  explosive  manufacture." 

APPLICATIONS. 
Military  Explosives. 

Of  these  explosives,  black  powder  will  seldom  be 
available  and  therefore  will  be  little  used. 

Gun-cotton  is  powerful  and  efficient,  but  will  not  be 
available  unless  carried  along.  Dry  gun-cotton  is  very 
sensitive,  and  therefore  dangerous  to  transport,  so  that 


DEMOLITIONS  133 

in  carrying  this  explosive  an  additional  weight  of  20 
to  25  per  cent,  of  water  must  be  carried,  this  being 
about  the  degree  of  saturation  required  to  make  it 
safe.  A  small  quantity  of  dry  gun-cotton  must  also  be 
carried,  as  this  is  the  only  satisfactory  primer  for  the 
wet  material.  The  dry  charge  is  fired  by  the  ordinary 
fulminate  primer. 

Rack-a-rock  has  the  advantage  of  perfect  safety  in 
transportation,  being  composed  of  two  substances, 
neither  of  which  is  explosive.  Powdered  chlorate  of 
potash  is  put  up  in  cloth  bags  the  size  of  a  dynamite 
cartridge.  These  are  soaked  in  mono-nitrobenzol,  al- 
lowed to  drain  for  a  minute,  and  then  may  be  primed 
and  fired  similarly  to  dynamite.  This  explosive,  also, 
must  be  carried  to  be  available  in  the  field. 

Trinitro-toliiol  is  perfectly  safe  for  any  character 
of  transportation,  being  inert  to  physical  shock,  and 
is  detonated  only  by  a  powerful  fulminate  cap.  It 
comes  in  three  forms,  the  natural  granular  substance 
in  paper  cartridges,  the  TNT  blocks  into  which  it  is 
pressed  for  the  IT.  S.  Engineers,  and  trotol  gelatine, 
the  preparation  of  Capt.  Woodward  of  the  22nd  Corps 
of  Engineers.  This  substance  is  very  powerful,  quick 
detonating  and  shattering.  It  has  not  the  noxious 
fumes  of  dynamite,  will  not  freeze,  and  is  insensitive 
to  shock.  Its  great  disadvantage  lies  in  the  fact  that, 
like  gun-cotton  and  rack-a-rock,  it  must  be  carried  to 
be  available  when  desired. 

The  well-known  dynamite,  reliable  when  handled 
carefully,  available  at  any  country  store,  and  familiar 
to  nearly  every  engineer  and  foreman,  will  probably 
form  the  bulk  of  the  explosive  used  by  the  army  in  the 
field. 

Firing  Charges. 

These  explosives,  with  the  exception  of  black  powder, 
are  of  the  detonating  variety,  and  may  be  exploded  by 


134  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

means  of  the  fulminate  cap,  either  by  fuse  or  by  elec- 
tricity. The  former  is  of  two  varieties,  Bickford,  which 
is  white,  has  a  twisted  surface,  and  burns  at  the  rate 
of  two  feet  per  minute,  and  the  Instantaneous  fuse, 
which  is  red,  has  a  rather  smooth,  woven  surface,  and 
burns  at  the  rate  of  about  1 20  feet  per  second.  Electric 
ignition  is  preferable,  as  the  time  of  firing  is  under 
the  control  of  the  operator  and  a  number  of  charges 
may  be  fired  simultaneously.  When  it  is  required  to 
fire  several  charges  simultaneously  by  fuse,  a  length 
of  instantaneous  fuse  should  be  connected  to  the  primer 
of  each  charge,  and  the  various  free  ends  gathered 
into  a  small  bag  of  powder.  This  is  ignited  by  a  piece 
of  Bickford  fuse,  cut  long  enough  to  allow  the  escape 
of  the  powder  man. 

Demolition  ~by  Explosives. 

The  most  important  demolitions  affect  lines  of  com- 
munication, and  must  not  be  undertaken  except  as  a 
matter  of  military  necessity  and  under  positive  writ- 
ten orders  from  the  commander  of  the  field  forces. 
Large  bridges  are  attacked  in  the  chords,  near  the 
abutments  where  the  chord  sections  are  smallest.  All 
longitudinal  members  should  be  cut.  Arches  are  cut 
at  the  crown  if  single,  or  if  double,  at  the  pier  between 
them.  Trees  not  over  a  foot  in  diameter  may  be  felled 
by  firing  a  charge  in  the  shape  of  a  chain  of  dynamite 
cartridges  encircling  their  trunks.  Twenty  per  cent,  of 
this  amount  will  have  the  same  effect  if  placed  in  a 
hole  bored  in  the  trunk.  Used  in  this  latter  way,  one 
stick  of  40  per  cent,  dynamite  will  cut  about  one  square 
foot  of  timber. 

Railroad  track  is  best  destroyed  by  mud-capping 
four  charges  of  about  one  stick  each  against  the  rail 
flanges,  so  as  to  cut  each  rail  in  two  places.  The  sec- 
tion of  track  is  then  turned  over,  the  ties  pried  off  and 


DEMOLITIONS 


135 


a  bonfire  made  of  them.  The  rails  are  heated  in  the 
fire  and  twisted,  using  pincers,  crowbars  through  the 
splice-bolt  holes,  or  any  manner  of  gripping  the  rail 
firmly.  Rails  thus  twisted  cannot  be  used  again  until 
re-rolled,  whereas  if  they  are  simply  bent  around  a 
tree,  they  may  be  roughly  straightened  in  the  field.  If 
it  be  desired  to  destroy  the  track  without  permanent 
damage  to  the  material,  the.  fish-plates  may  be  taken 
off  at  the  ends  of  a  long  section,  the  loosened  portion 
lifted  by  a  large  force  of  men  and  rolled  down  the 
embankment.  It  must  be  remembered  that  unless  the 
demolition  be  most  thorough,  good  railway  troops  can 
repair  track  about  as  rapidly  as  it  can  be  destroyed. 

Small  bridges,  intended  to  be  demolished  as  soon  as 
the  immediate  need  for  them  has  passed,  are  usually 
prepared  for  demolition  during  construction,  so  that 
the  charges  may  be  fired  when  the  last  troops  have 
crossed,  and  before  a  closely  pursuing  enemy  can  fol- 
low. 
Fig.  41  shows  the  placing  of  a  charge  of  rack-a-rock 


FIG    41.      PLACING    CHARGE 


136 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


in  a  spar  bridge,  Fig.  42  the  explosion,  and  Fig.  43  the 
destroyed  bridge. 


FIG.     42.      THE    EXPLOSION 


FIG.   43.      BRIDGE   DESTROYED 


DEMOLITIONS  137 

For  the  destruction  of  woods,  villages,  etc.,  which 
must  be  razed  to  give  a  clear  field  of  fire,  explosives 
will  not  be  wasted  unless  great  haste  is  required.  Free 
use  of  the  axe,  and  the  assistance  of  troops  from  the 
infantry,  will  accomplish  much  in  a  short  time.  If  the 
smoke  is  not  objectionable  as  betraying  the  position, 
this  work  may  be  done  largely  by  means  of  fire. 


XII. 
MILITARY  BRIDGES. 

Military  bridges  are  of  many  types.  From  the  felled 
log  that  may  enable  a  single  messenger  to  cross  with 
an  important  order,  to  the  railway  trestle  that  carries 
the  supply  trains,  all  sorts  and  sizes  of  bridges  find 
their  application  to  military  purposes.  Outside  of  cer- 
tain improvised  types,  however,  and  others  that  arc1 
little  used,  military  bridges  may  be  grouped  in  four 
general  classes:  truss,  pile,  spar  and  floating.  Truss 
bridges  find  their  principal  application  along  the  line 
of  communications  and  will  be  little  used  at  the  front. 

Loads. 

The  loads  which  military  bridges  will  have  to  sup- 
port are  about  as  follows,  in  pounds  per  linear  foot  of 
bridge : 

Infantry,   single   file,   heavy   marching  order. ..  .140  pounds 
double  file,         "  "  "     ....280 

col.  of  fours     "  "  "     ....560 

Cavalry,    single    file     196 

double   file    392 

column  of  fours   784 

WEIGHTS  OF  GUNS  AND  MILITARY  CARRIAGES, 
FULLY  LOADED  FOR  TRAVELING.  * 


3.2-in.  B.  L.  F.  gun 

3.6-in.  B.  L.  F.  gun 

3.2-in.   caisson    

3.6-in.   caisson    

Battery  and  forge  wagon . . 

5-in.  siege  rifle   

7-in.  siege  howitzer 

Maxim    automatic    

Gatling    

Army      escort      wagon       (4 

mules)      

Army  wagon   (6  mules)  .... 

*From   Engineer  Field  Manual. 

138 


Weight  on  the 

Distance      Width 
between     of  wheel 

Wheels. 

Axles,       Track, 

Front 

Hind 

c.  t 

0  C.         C. 

to  c 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Ft. 

Ins. 

Ft. 

1,735 

2,070 

8 

7 

5 

1,870 

2,415 

8 

9 

5 

1,775 

2,805 

8 

5% 

5 

1,930 

3,070 

8 

6 

5 

1,130 

2,130 

8 

6 

5 

2,530 

6,425 

8 

1% 

5 

2,510 

6,920 

8 

VA 

5 

1,950 

1,230 

7 

0 

5 

754 

1,075 

7 

0 

5 

2,500 

2,500 

5 

9i/2 

5 

3,500 

3,500 

6 

l1/^ 

5 

MILITARY    BRIDGES 


139 


FIG.  44.      KNOTS 


140  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

Knots  and  Lashings. 

A  knowledge  of  a  number  of  the  common  knots, 
splices  and  lashings  is  essential  to  the  construction  of 
military  bridges,  particularly  those  of  the  spar  type. 
Those  described  herein  are  taken  from  the  Engineer 
Field  Manual : 

The  following  knots  are  most  useful  in  bridging. 

Overhand  knot,  used  at  the  end  of  a  rope  to  prevent 
unreeving  or  to  prevent  the  end  of  the  rope  from  slip- 
ping through  a  block. 

Figure-of-eight  knot,  used  for  purposes  similar  to 
above. 

Square  or  reef  knot,  commonly  used  for  joining  two 
ropes  of  the  same  size.  The  standing  and  running 
parts  of  each  rope  must  pass  through  the  loop  of  the 
other  in  the  same  direction,  i.  e.,  from  above  downward 
or  vice  versa;  otherwise  a  granny  is  made,  which  is  a 
useless  knot  that  will  not  hold.  The  reef  knot  can  be 
upset  by  taking  one  end  of  the  rope  and  its  standing 
part  and  pulling  them  in  opposite  directions.  With 
dry  rope  a  reef  knot  is  as  strong  as  the  rope ;  with  wet 
rope  it  slips  before  the  rope  breaks,  while  a  double 
sheet  bend  is  found  to  hold. 

The  thief  knot,  commonly  mistaken  for  a  reef  knot, 
should  be  avoided  as  it  will  not  hold.  The  figure 
shows  that  the  end  of  each  rope  turns  around  the 
standing  part  instead  of  around  the  end  of  the  other, 
as  in  a  reef  knot. 

Single  sheet  bend,  weaver's  knot,  used  for  joining 
ropes  together,  especially  when  unequal  in  size.  It  is 
more  secure  than  the  reef  knot  but  more  difficult  to 
untie. 

Double  sheet  bend,  used  also  for  fastening  ropes  of 
unequal  sizes,  especially  wet  ones,  and  is  more  secure 
than  the  single  sheet  bend. 

Two  half  hitehes,  especially  useful  for  belaying,  or 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


141 


Timber  hitch, 


Timber  hitch  and  Half  hitch, 


Hawser  Bend. 


Bowline. 


Running  Bowline. 


FIG.   45.      KNOTS 


142  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

making  fast  the  end  of  a  rope  round  its  own  standing 
part.  The  end  may  be  lashed  down  or  seized  to  the 
standing  part  with  a  piece  of  spun  yarn ;  this  adds  to 
its  security  and  prevents  slipping. 

This  knot  should  never  be  used  for  hoisting  a  spar. 

Round  turn  and  two  half  hitches,  like  the  preceding 
except  that  a  turn  is  first  taken  round  the  spar  or  post. 

Fisherman's  bend  or  anchor  knot,  used  for  fasten- 
ing a  rope  to  a  ring  or  anchor.  Take  two  turns  round 
the  iron,  then  a  half  hitch  round  the  standing  part  and 
between  the  rings  and  the  turns,  lastly  a  half  hitch 
round  the  standing  part. 

Clove  hitch,  generally  used  for  fastening  a  rope  at 
right  angles  to  a  spar  or  at  the  commencement  of  a 
lashing.  If  the  end  of  the  spar  is  free,  the  hitch  is 
made  by  first  forming  two  loops,  placing  the  right-hand 
loop  over  the  other  one  and  slipping  the  double  loop 
over  the  end  of  the  spar.  If  this  can  not  be  done,  pass 
the  end  of  the  rope  round  the  spar,  bring  it  up  to  the 
right  of  the  standing  part,  cross  over  the  latter,  make 
another  turn  round  the  spar,  and  bring  up  the  end 
between  the  spar,  the  last  turn,  and  the  standing  part. 
When  used  for  securing  guys  to  sheer  legs,  etc.,  the 
knot  should  be  made  with  a  long  end,  which  is  formed 
into  two  half  hitches  round  the  standing  part  and 
secured  to  it  with  spun  yarn. 

Timber  hitch,  used  for  hauling  and  lifting  spars.  It 
can  easily  be  loosed  when  the  strain  is  taken  off,  but 
will  not  slip  under  a  pull.  When  used  for  hauling 
spars,  a  half  hitch  is  added  near  the  end  of  the  spar. 

Telegraph  hitch,  used  for  hoisting  or  hauling  a  spar. 

Hawser  bend,  used  for  joining  two  large  cables. 
Each  end  is  seized  to  its  own  standing  part. 

Bowline  forms  a  loop  that  will  not  slip.  Make  loop 
with  the  standing  part  of  the  rope  underneath,  pass 
the  end  from  below  through  the  loop,  over  the  part 
round  the  standing  part  of  the  rope,  and  then  down 


MILITARY 


143 


FIG.   46.      KNOTS 


144  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE   ENGINEER 

through  the  loop  c.  The  length  of  bight  depends  upoii 
the  purpose  for  which  the  knot  is  required. 

Bowline  on  a  bight.  The  first  part  is  made  like  the 
above,  with  the  double  part  of  a  rope ;  then  the  bight 
a  is  pulled  through  sufficiently  to  allow  it  to  be  bent 
past  d  and  come  up  in  the  position  shown.  It  makes  a 
more  comfortable  sling  for  a  man  than  a  single  bight. 

Running  'bowline.  A  slip  noose  formed  by  a  bowline 
running  on  the  standing  part  of  the  line. 

Barrel  Sling.  To  sling  a  barrel  or  box  horizontally, 
make  a  bowline  with  a  long  bight  and  apply  it  as 
shown. 

To  sling  a  barrel  vertically,  make  an  overhand  knot 
on  top  of  the  two  parts  of  the  rope ;  open  out  the  knot 
and  slip  each  half  of  it  down  the  sides  of  the  cask; 
secure  with  a  bowline. 

Cat's-paw.  Form  two  equal  bights.  Take  one  in 
each  hand  and  roll  them  along  the  standing  part  till 
surrounded  by  three  turns  of  the  standing  part ;  then 
bring  both  loops  (or  bights)  together  and  pass  over 
the  hook  of  a  block. 

Sheep  shank,  used  for  shortening  a  rope  or  to  pass 
by  a  weak  spot ;  a  half  hitch  is  taken  with  the  standing 
parts  around  the  bights. 

Rolling  hitch,  used  for  hauling  a  large  rope  or  cable. 
Two  turns  are  taken  round  the  large  rope  in  the  direc- 
tion in  which  it  is  to  be  hauled,  and  one  half  hitch  on 
the  other  side  of  the  hauling  part.  A  useful  knot  and 
quickly  made. 

For  armored  cable,  or  wet  manila  rope,  the  hitch 
must  be  made  with  a  strap  of  rope  yarn.  Rope  will 
not  hold. 

Blackwall  hitch,  used  for  attaching  a  single  rope  to 
a  hook  of  a  block  for  hoisting. 

Mooring  knot.  Take  two  turns  round  the  mooring  or 
snubbing  post,  pass  the  free  end  of  the  rope  under  the 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


145 


Blackwall  Hitch. 


Mooring  Knot. 


Wall  Knot.  Wall  Knot. 


Carrick  Bend. 


FIG.   47.      KNOTS 


140  PREPAREDNESS  ANT)  TTTfi  ENGINEER 

standing  part ;  take  a  third  turn  above  the  other  and 
pass  the  free  end  between  the  two  upper  turns. 

Car  rick  bend,  much  used  for  hawsers  and  to  fasten 
guys  to  derricks. 

Wall  knot,  and 

Crown  on  wall,  both  used  for  finishing  off  the  ends 
of  ropes  to  prevent  unstranding. 

To  make  a  short  splice,  unlay  the  strands  of  each 
rope  for  a  convenient  length.  Bring  the  rope  ends 
together  so  that  each  strand  of  one  rope  lies  between 
the  two  consecutive  strands  of  the  other  rope.  Draw 
the  strands  of  the  first  rope  along  the  second  and  grasp 
with  one  hand.  Then  work  a  free  strand  of  the  second 
rope  over  the  nearest  strand  of  the  first  rope  and  under 
the  second  strand,  working  in  a  direction  opposite  to 
the  twist  of  the  rope.  The  same  operation  applied  to 
all  the  strands  will  give  the  result  shown  in  Fig.  48. 
The  splicing  may  be  continued  in  the  same  manner 
to  any  extent  and  the  free  ends  of  the  strands  may  be 
cut  off  when  desired.  The  splice  may  be  neatly  tapered 
by  cutting  out  a  few  fibers  from  each  strand  each  time 
it  is  passed  through  the  rope.  Rolling  under  a  board 
or  the  foot  will  make  the  splice  compact. 

Long  splice.  Unlay  the  strands  of  each  rope  for  a 
convenient  length  and  bring  together  as  for  a  short 
splice.  Unlay  to  any  desired  length  a  strand,  d,  of  one 
rope,  laying  in  its  place  the  nearest  strand,  a,  of  the 
other  rope.  Repeat  the  operation  in  the  opposite  di- 
rection with  two  other  strands,  c  and  /.  Strands  b  and 
e  are  shown  secured  by  unlaying  half  of  each  for  a 
suitable  length  and  laying  half  of  the  other  in  place 
of  the  unlayed  portions,  the  loose  ends  being  passed 
through  the  rope.  This  splice  is  used  when  the  rope  is 
to  run  through  a  block.  The  diameter  of  the  rope  is 
not  enlarged  at  the  splice.  The  ends  of  the  strands 
should  not  be  trimmed  off  close  until  the  splice  has 
been  thoroughly  stretched  by  work. 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


147 


Short  Splice, 


Short  Spfrce 


Long  Splice. 


FIG.    48,      KNOTS 


148  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

Eye  splice.  Unlay  a  convenient  length  of  rope.  Pass 
one  loose  strand,  a,  under  one  strand  of  the  rope,  form- 
ing an  eye  of  the  proper  size.  Pass  a  second  loose 
strand  of  the  rope  next  to  the  strand  which  secures  a. 
Pass  the  third  strand,  c,  under  the  strand  next  to  that 
which  secures  b.  Draw  all  taut  and  continue  and  com- 
plete as  for  a  short  splice. 

To  lash  a  transom  to  an  upright  spar,  transom  in 
front  of  upright,  a  clove  hitch  is  made  round  the  up- 
right a  few  inches  below  the  transom.  The  lashing  is 
brought  under  the  transom,  up  in  front  of  it,  horizon- 
tally behind  the  upright,  down  in  front  of  the  transom 
and  above  the  clove  hitch.  The  following  turns  are 
kept  outside  the  previous  ones  on  one  spar  and  inside 
on  the  other,  not  riding  over  the  turns  already  made. 
Four  turns  or  more  are  required.  A  couple  of  f rap- 
ping turns  are  then  taken  between  the  spars,  around 
the  lashing,  and  the  lashing  is  finished  off  either  round 
one  of  the  spars  or  any  part  of  the  lashing  through 
which  the  rope  can  be  passed.  The  final  clove  hitch 
should  never  be  made  around  the  spar  on  the  side 
toward  which  the  stress  is  to  come,  as  it  may  jam  and 
be  difficult  to  remove.  The  lashing  must  be  well 
beaten  with  handspike  or  pick  handle  to  tighten  it  up. 
This  is  called  a  square  lashing. 

Lashing  for  a  pair  of  shears.  The  two  spars  for  the 
shears  are  laid  alongside  of  each  other  with  their  butts 
on  the  ground,  the  points  below  where  the  lashing  is  to 
be  resting  on  a  skid.  A  clove  hitch  is  made  round  one 
spar  and  the  lashing  taken  loosely  eight  or  nine  times 
about  the  two  spars  above  it  without  riding.  A  couple 
of  frapping  turns  are  then  taken  between  the  spars 
and  the  lashing  is  finished  off  with  a  clove  hitch  above 
the  turns  on  one  of  the  spars.  The  butts  of  the  spars 
are  then  opened  out  and  a  sling  passed  over  the  fork, 
to  which  the  block  is  hooked  or  lashed,  and  fore  and 
back  guys  are  made  fast  with  clove  hitches  to  the  bot- 


MILITARY    BRIDGES  149 


FIG.    49.      LASHINGS 


150  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE  ENGINEER 

torn  and  top  spars,  respectively,  just  above  the  fork. 
(Top  of  Fig.  49). 

To  lash  three  spars  together  as  for  a  gin  or  tripod. 
Mark  on  each  spar  the  distance  from  the  butt  to  the 
center  of  the  lashing.  Lay  two  of  the  spars  parallel  to 
each  other  with  an  interval  a  little  greater  than  the 
diameter.  Rest  their  tips  on  a  skid  and  lay  the  third 
spar  between  them  with  its  butt  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion so  that  the  marks  on  the  three  spars  will  be  in  line. 
Make  a  clove  hitch  on  one  of  the  outer  spars  below  the 
lashing  and  take  eight  or  nine  loose  turns  around  the 
three.  Take  a  couple  of  frapping  turns  between  each 
pair  of  spars  in  succession  and  finish  with  a  clove  hitch 
on  the  central  spar  above  the  lashing.  Pass  a  sling 
over  the  lashing  and  the  tripod  is  ready  for  raising. 

To  prepare  a  fastening  in  the  ground  for  the  at- 
tachment of  guys  or  purchases,  stout  pickets  are  driven 
into  the  ground  one  behind  the  other,  in  the  line  of 
pull.  The  head  of  each  picket  except  the  last  is  secured 
by  a  lashing  to  the  foot  of  the  picket  next  behind.  The 
lashings  are  tightened  by  rack  sticks,  the  points  of 
which  are  driven  into  the  ground  to  hold  them  in  posi- 
tion. The  distance  between  the  stakes  should  be  several 
times  the  height  of  the  stake  above  the  ground. 

Another  form  requiring  more  labor  but  having  much 
greater  strength  is  called  a  deadman,  and  consists  of 
a  log  laid  in  a  transverse  trench  with  an  inclined  trench 
intersecting  it  at  its  middle  point.  The  cable  is  passed 
down  the  inclined  trench,  takes  several  round  turns  on 
the  log,  and  is  fastened  to  it  by  half  hitches  and  marlin 
stopping.  If  the  cable  is  to  lead  horizontally  or  inclined 
downward,  it  should  pass  over  a  log  at  the  outlet  of  the 
inclined  trench.  If  the  cable  is  to  lead  upward  this 
log  is  not  necessary,  but  the  anchor  log  must  be  buried 
deeper. 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


151 


FIG.    50.      GROUND  TACKLE 


152  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE   ENGINEER 

Improvised  Bridges. 

Suspension  bridges  are  sometimes  built,  but  are  not 
generally  satisfactory  as  a  field  type,  owing  to  their 
lack  of  stiffness.  With  the  labor  necessary  to  properly 
construct  such  a  bridge,  with  an  adequate  stiffening 
truss,  a  more  serviceable  truss  or  pile  bridge  might  be 
built.  However,  where  the  material  at  hand  and  the 
locality  are  particularly  suited  to  a  suspension  bridge, 
there  should  be  no  hesitancy  in  undertaking  its  con- 
struction. The  towrers  may  be  lashed  spar  bents,  the 
anchorages  deadmen,  the  cable  steel  wire  rope,  the  sus- 
penders of  wire,  and  the  floor  system  of  round  timber 
or  ponton  material.  If  a  stiffening  truss  is  used,  it 
will  probably  be  of  the  Howe  or  Pratt  type  of  bracing, 
with  timber  struts  and  twisted  wire  diagonals. 

An  excellent  foot  suspension  bridge  may  be  made 
from  Page  woven  wire  fencing,  three  lengths  being 
used,  one  for  the  bottom  and  one  for  each  side.  The 
sides  may  be  wrapped  around  convenient  trees  or  well 
braced  vertical  posts  and  firmly  fastened  with  staples. 
The  bottom  is  fastened  in  a  similar  manner  to  a  log 
which  is  staked  back  of  the  supporting  trees.  The  floor 
beams  are  round  or  square  timbers  resting  on  the  bot- 
tom wires  of  the  sides  and  the  outer  wires  of  the  bottom 
section  of  fencing.  Floor  boards  may  be  nailed  or 
lashed  longitudinally  to  the  floor  beams,  or  placed 
transversely  upon  stringers  resting  on  the  beams.  Such 
a  bridge  is  good  for  a  span  of  150  or  more  feet,  can  be 
constructed  in  an  hour  if  the  materials  are  at  hand, 
and  will  bear  fully  equipped  infantrymen  at  intervals 
of  four  or  five  feet.  The  sag  should  be  about  one-tenth 
of  the  span. 

When  only  a  number  of  short  boards  are  available 
for  a  bridge,  as  for  instance  those  obtained  from  pack- 
ing cases,  a  sort  of  latticed  girder  truss  is  sometimes 
built  by  nailing  them  together  to  form  chords  and  diag- 
onals. Similar  material  is  also  made  into  a  bowstring 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


153 


FIG.    51.      FLOATING    PILE-DRIVER 


154  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

truss,  the  chords  being  formed  of  boards  set  on  edge, 
inclosing  the  ends  of  the  web  members.  These  bridges 
must  be  considered  as  expedients  only  and  not  as  ac- 
cepted military  types. 

Pile  Bridges. 

Pile  bridges  will  probably  be  the  most  used.  The 
piles  will  be  driven  by  hand  mauls  or  by  a  field  pile 
driver  such  as  shown  in  Fig.  51.  Here  the  platform  is 
formed  of  the  ponton  material,  the  leads  are  ponton 
floor  stringers,  the  hammer  a  section  of  tree  trunk,  and 
it  is  operated  by  man  power.  A  similar  driver  is  built 
to  rest  upon  the  completed  portion  of  a  bridge,  canti- 
levering  out  to  the  bent  under  construction.  The  outer 


Ravine 

FIG.    52.      TRESTLE    FOR    SPAR   BRIDGE 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


155 


end  is  trussed  up  by  twisted  ropes,  passing  from  the 
bottom  of  the  leads,  over  king  posts,  and  down  to  the 
rear  end  of  the  driver,  which  is  counterweighted  by 
logs  or  sand  bags.  The  floor  of  the  completed  bridge  is 
of  plank  if  available,  or  caps,  stringers,  floor  and  guard 
timbers  may  all  be  of  round  stuff,  laid  corduroy  style. 

Spar  Bridges. 

Spar  bridges  are  in  a  distinct  class  by  themselves. 
They  have  been  developed  solely  by  military  engineers, 
and  their  great  advantage  lies  in  the  fact  that  they 
may  be  constructed  entirely  of  rough  timber,  cut  at 
the  site,  and  put  together  by  means  of  rope  lashings. 
A  stream  or  ravine  with  steep  banks  and  of  no  great 
width  is  particularly  suited  for  a  spar  bridge. 

Single  lock  bridge.  A  trestle  as  shown  in  Fig.  52  is 
built  upon  each  bank,  the  top  of  one  being  made  of  a 


FIG.    53,      ERECTION    OF    SPAR   BRIDGE 


156 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


MILITARY   BRIDGES  lf>7 

width  to  pass  readily  between  the  standards  of  the 
other.  (Fig.  53.)  The  two  are  then  lowered  into  the 
ravine  and  their  transoms  locked.  (Fig.  54.)  A 
road-bearer  is  placed  in  the  fork  of  the  standards,  and 
forms  a  support  in  the  middle  of  the  span.  In  a  double 
lock  bridge  (Fig.  55)  the  trestles  do  not  interlock,  but 
are  held  apart  by  two  road  bearers,  lashed  to  two 


Single  Sling  bridge 

FIG.  55.       DOUBLE  LOCK  AND  SINGLE  SLING  BRIDGES 

stringers  which  rest  upon  the  transoms  of  the  trestles. 
The  bridge  thus  has  two  supports  and  three  panels. 

Single  Sling  Bridge.  If  the  standards  of  a  double 
lock  bridge  are  extended  to  a  junction  above  the  center 
of  the  bridge  (Fig.  55),  an  additional  road  bearer  or 
floor  beam  may  be  suspended  from  the  intersection, 
and  the  number  of  panels  increased  to  four.  Double 
sling  and  triple  sling  bridges  have  been  constructed, 
but  the  single  sling  is  practically  the  limit  of  develop- 
ment of  the  spar  bridge.  A  sling  bridge  requires 
much  heavier  standards  than  the  double-lock  type. 
Fig.  56  shows  a  spar  bridge  of  the  double  lock  type. 


158 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


FIG.    56.      DOUBLE    LOCK    BRIDGE    COMPLETED 


ROUND  TIMBER  REQUIRED  FOR  SPAR  BRIDGES. 

Diameter. 

Through- 

Kind of  bridge.          Spars. 

Length.  At  tip. 

out  or 

Purpose. 

mean. 

No. 

Ft.          Ins. 

Ins. 

4 

'22         7 

Standards. 

2 

15 

6 

Transoms. 

4 

15 

4  to  6 

Ledgers  and 

Single  lock,  « 

shore  trans. 

30-ft.  span. 

4 

20 

3 

Diag.  braces. 

1 

15 

10 

Fork  trans. 

10 

20 

6 

Balk. 

4 

20 

3  to  6 

Side  rails. 

r     4 

20         7 

Standards. 

2 

15 

6 

Main  trans. 

4 

15 

4  to  6 

Ledgers  and 

Double  lock,  ^ 
45-f  t,  span 

2 
2 

25 
15 

8 
10 

shore  trans. 
Distance  pcs. 
Road  trans. 

4 

20 

3 

Braces. 

15 

20 

6 

Balk. 

^-    4 

20 

4  to  6 

Side  rails. 

From  Engineer  Field  Manual. 


MILITARY   BRIDGES  159 

ROPE  REQUIRED  FOR  SPAR  BRIDGES. 

Single  lock.  Double  lock. 

Description  and  size  of  ropes.  Ropes.  J^     ^  Ropes.  J^     *«• 

No.         Ft.         Lbs.      No.         Ft.        Lbs. 

Foot    ropes,    3    in.    circ.,    40 

to  60  ft 4  240  71  4  240  71 

Guys,  3  in.  circ.,  120  to 

150  ft. 8  1,200  356  8  1,200  356 

2  in.  circ.,  108  ft 2  216  29  2  216  29 

ly2  in.  circ.,  54  ft,  for 

transom  lashings  4  216  29  8  512  68 

ly2  in.  circ.,  36  ft,  for 

ledger  and  brace  lashings  10  360  27  14  504  37 
1  in.  circ.,  21  ft.,  for  road 

bearers  10  210  7  10  210  7 

Spun  yarn  . .  7  . .  . .  7 


Aggregate  length  and 
weight  of  rope  re- 
quired    2,442  526  ..  2,882  575 

From  Engineer  Field  Manual. 

For  bridging  a  shallow  ravine  or  watercourse,  some 
one  of  the  following  lashed  trestle  bridges  is  applicable : 

The  Two  Legged  Trestle  consists  of  a  lashed  frame 
as  used  for  a  single  lock  bridge,  the  standards  being 
set  at  a  greater  slope.  Each  trestle  is  assembled  on 
shore,  carried  out  to  the  head  of  the  completed  bridge 
and  let  down  by  inclined  skids  until  its  feet  are  in 
position.  The  top  is  then  pushed  out  by  means  of  the 
stringers,  previously  lashed  to  the  transom,  the  flooring 
is  completed  out  to  this  point,  the  skids  placed  in  posi- 
tion, and  another  trestle  brought  out  and  placed.  See 
bottom  of  Fig.  57. 

The  Three  Legged  Trestle  contains  bents  of  two 
tripods  each.  The  three  legs  of  a  tripod  are  lashed 
together  at  the  top  by  means  of  two  shear  lashings, 
three  ledgers  are  lashed  around  the  bottom  to  keep  the 
legs  spread,  and  a  transom  is  lashed  on  the  inside  face 
of  each  tripod.  The  road  bearer  rests  upon  the  two 


1(50  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


FIG.    57.      LASHED   TRESTLE    BRIDGES 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


161 


transoms.  This  type  is  built  in  place,  the  men  wading 
in  the  water.  It  is  impracticable  in  deep  water,  as 
the  tripods  are  liable  to  float  before  the  load  is  placed 
upon  them.  See  top  of  Fig.  57. 

The  Four  Legged  Trestle  is  constructed  in  place,  or, 
if  of  light  spars,  it  may  be  carried  out  and  placed  in 
position.  See  Fig.  57,  center  cut. 


SPARS  AND  LASHINGS  FOR  TRESTLES. 

Diam.  of 


Kind  of  trestle. 


Two-legged . 


Three-legged .  • 


Four-legged    - 


Ft. 


1 
2 

1 
(\ 
3 
0 
1 
4 
6 
4 

12 
6 
4 
2 
4 
4 

12 
6 


10  to  14 


30 

15 

.  .^. . . 

4  to  6 

6 

2 

30 
15 

10  to  14 


30 
15 


spars  or  circ. 

of  rope. 

Ins. 

4%    tO  6 

5%  to  7 

3i/2  to  4i/2 

3  to  6 


3  to  5 

7  to  8 


1%  to  2i/2 
2 


314  to4% 

5  to  6 

3  to  31/2 

2i/2  to  3 


Purpose. 

Legs. 

Transom. 

Diagonals. 

Ledger. 

Lashings. 

Lashings. 

Legs. 

Transom. 

Cross    bearers. 

Ledgers. 

Stakes. 

Lashings. 

Lashings. 

Legs. 

Transom. 

Diagonals. 

Ledgers. 

Lashings. 

Lashings. 


From  Engineer  Field  Manual. 

Floating  Bridges. 

Floating  bridges  are  among  the  most  important 
equipment  carried  by  an  army  in  the  field.  The  equip- 
age of  the  U.  S.  Army  is  of  two  kinds:  the  advance 
guard  or  light  train,  and  the  reserve  or  heavy  train. 

The  Light  Train  is  generally  carried  by  engineers 
with  the  advance  guard.  The  boats  are  collapsible,  of 
wooden  frames  covered  with  canvas,  and  displace  6 


162 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


tons.  Each  will  carry  20  infantrymen  fully  equipped, 
and  a  crew.  The  boats  are  21  ft.  x  5  ft.  4  in.  x  2  ft.  4  in., 
are  spaced  16  feet  center  to  center  in  the  bridge,  and 
the  entire  boat,  with  material  for  one  bay  or  panel  of 
the  floor,  is  carried  on  one  wagon.  A  division  of  the 
light  train  comprises  eight  boats  and  two  trestles,  spans 
186  feet,  and  is  carried  upon  14  wagons,  8  ponton,  2 
trestle,  2  chess,  1  tool,  and  1  battery  and  forge. 

The  Heavy  Train  consists  of  wooden  boats,  31  ft.  x 
5  ft.  8  in.  x  2  ft.  7  in.,  displacing  9%  tons,  and  capable 
of  carrying  40  infantrymen  and  a  crew.  They  are 
spaced  20  feet  apart,  center  to  center,  in  the  bridge, 
and  one  wagon  carries  a  boat  with  the  stringers  for 
spanning  one  bay.  A  division  of  the  reserve  train  com- 
prises 8  boats  and  2  trestles,  spans  225  feet,  and  is 
carried  upon  16  wagons,  8  ponton,  2  trestle,  4  chess,  1 
tool  and  1  battery  and  forge.  Fig.  58  shows  a  loaded 
ponton  carriage  of  the  reserve  train. 


FKJ.    58.       LOADED    PONTON    CARRIAGE,    RESERVE    TRAIN 

The  Floor  System  consists  of  long  stringers  or  balks 
which  span  between  and  across  both  boats,  the  chess, 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


163 


which  form  the  floor,  and  the  side  rails,  which  are 
extra  balks  laid  on  the  outer  ends  of  the  chess  to  keep 
them  down.  The  side  rails  are  lashed  to  the  balks  under 
the  chess,  the  latter  being  made  narrower  at  the  ends 
to  allow  passing  the  lashing  between  them.  The  floor  is 
designed  to  fail  before  the  boats  can  be  sunk  by  a  load 
on  the  bridge,  and  will  safely  carry  660  pounds  per 
linear  foot  in  the  reserve  equipage  and  600  pounds  in 
the  light.  Greater  strength  is  obtained  by  using  extra 
balk  under  the  wheel  tracks,  and  the  factor  of  safety 
of  the  boats  may  thus  be  reduced  from  4  to  2.  Any 
load  which  travels  with  the  army,  including  siege  ar- 
tillery, may  then  pass  over  the  bridge. 

NAMES  AND  DIMENSIONS  OF  THE   PRINCIPAL  PARTS  OF  THE 
LIGHT  AND  HEAVY  TRAINS. 


Name  of  part. 

Ponton,  9y2   ton  .  .  . 

Light  train. 

Heavy  train. 

31  ft.  by  5  ft    8  in 

Canvas     ponton,     6 
tons    

21  ft.  by  5  ft.  4  in. 
by  2  ft.  4  in. 

by  2  ft.  7  in. 

Balks  and  side  rails 
Trestle  balks   .... 

22    ft.    by    4i/2    by 
4i/2  in. 

'11  ft.  by  5  by  5  in. 
21  ft   8  in    by  5  by 

Chess   

11  ft.  by  12  by  li^ 

5  in. 
13  ft.  by  12  by  ly2 

Abutment  sills  .... 

in. 

in. 

14  ft    by  8  by  6  in 

Trestle  caps,  2 
planks  each   .... 

20  ft   by  12  by  2  in 

Trestle  legs    

15  ft  by  7  by  3y2  in 

Trestle  shoe  

Suspension   chains 

y2  in   by  8  ft 

Paddles   

8  ft  

Oars   

18  ft 

Boat  hooks  

8ft.  blunted  points 

10  ft 

Rack  sticks   

l!/4  in.  diam.  2  ft 

1}4   in    diam     2  ft 

long    

long 

Anchor    

75  lb  

150  lb 

Anchor  cable  

3  in.  circ.,  180  ft 

3   in    circ     240   ft 

loner    . 

Ions:. 

164 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


Name  of  part. 

Lashings   


Light  train. 

1    in.    circ.,   18   ft. 


cotton 


long 
Canvas-ponton  No.     0000 

cover duck    . 

Ponton  chest 8  ft.  long,  2  ft.  4 

in.   wide,   18  in. 
deep 
From  Engineer  Field  Manual. 

WEIGHTS  OF  WAGONS  AND  THEIR  LOADS. 


Heavy  train. 

in.    circ.,    18 
long. 


ft. 


Kind  of  wagon. 


Light  train.  Heavy  train. 

Wagon.      Load.        Total.  Wagon.  Load.  Total. 

Lbs.         Lbs.         Lbs.         Lbs.  Lbs.  Lbs. 

Ponton   1,750     1,985     3,735  2,200  2,900  5,10C 

Chess    1,750     1,856    3,606  1,750  2,280  4,030 

Trestle   1,750    2,060    3,810  2,200  2,635  4,835 

Tool    1,700     1,938    3,638  1,700  2,100  3,800 

Battery  and  forge    2,081       600    2,681  2,081  600  2,681 
l-'roni  Engineer  Field  Manual. 

To  save  one  boat  at  either  end,  and  in  places  where 
a  boat  would  ground,  the  Birago  Trestle  (Fig.  59)  is 


Sling 


Cap 


Shoe 


FIG.    59.      BIRAGO   TRESTLE 


MILITARY    BRIDGES  165 

used.  On  dry  ground  or  in  very  shallow  water  it  may 
be  assembled  prone  and  raised  into  position  by  guy 
ropes.  Over  water  it  is  assembled  on  a  ponton  raft  and 
raised  to  the  vertical,  the  cap  resting  upon  two  balks 
which  project  over  the  edge  of  the  raft.  The  trestle 
balks  are  passed  out  from  the  shore  and  their  double 
cleats  hooked  over  the  cap  and  the  abutment  sill  on  the 
bank.  The  shoes  of  the  trestle  are  then  forced  down 
upon  the  bottom,  the  false  legs  or  wedges  driven,  the 
chain  slings  adjusted,  and  the  raft  withdrawn.  Chess 
are  laid  out  to  the  trestle  cap  and  the  construction  of 
the  bridge  proceeds  as  when  building  out  from  the 
shore.  At  the  far  end  the  trestle  is  placed  in  a  similar 
manner,  any  surplus  length  of  bridge  being  taken  up 
by  allowing  a  short  bay  between  the  last  boat  arid  the 
trestle  or  by  setting  the  abutment  sill  back  from  the 
bank.  The  new  Rees  Trestle  does  away  with  the 
chain  slings. 

When  there  are  not  sufficient  boats  available  to  con- 
struct a  bridge,  some  form  of  extemporized  floating 
support  must  be  constructed.  Figs.  60  and  61  show, 
respectively,  a  barrel  raft  and  a  log  raft.  Before  using 
such  a  raft,  its  buoyancy  must  be  tested  or  computed, 
in  order  that  it  may  not  sink  when  the  bridge  is  loaded. 

In  constructing  the  bridge,  the  boats  are  assembled, 
half  upstream  and  half  downstream  of  the  abutment. 
The  chess  are  piled  on  the  right,  the  balks  on  the  left, 
and  the  company  is  formed  and  divided  into  working 
parties  as  shown  in  Fig.  62.  The  first  boat  is  brought 
from  downstream  to  the  bank  (or  alongside  the  trestle 
if  used).  The  balk  carriers  bring  out  five  balks,  hook 
their  cleats  over  the  outer  gunwale  of  the  boat,  where 
they  are  held  in  position  by  the  balk  lashers  in  the 
boat,  and  push  it  out  until  the  cleats  at  the  shore  end 
of  the  balks  engage  the  abutment  sill  (trestle  cap  or 
boat  previously  placed).  The  boat  is  then  secured  by 
cables  to  the  bank.  The  chess  carriers  bring  out  the 


166  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


FIG.     60.      BARREL    RAFT 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


167 


mmwmm&fomitsMfr 

FIG.    61.      LOG    RAFT 


168 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


MILITARY    BRIDGES  169 

chess,  which  are  laid  across  the  balks  out  nearly  to  the 
first  boat. 

Boat  No.  2,  from  upstream,  drops  its  anchor  opposite 
the  position  which  will  be  occupied  by  boat  No.  3  in  the 
bridge,  drops  down  alongside  No.  1  and  is  pushed  out 
as  before.  Both  sets  of  balk  are  now  lashed  to  the  gun- 
wales of  No.  1  and  chess  laid  out  nearly  to  No.  2.  The 
side  rail  detail  place  the  side  rails  on  the  chess  of  the 
first  bay,  pass  a  lashing  between  the  chess,  around 
balk  and  side  rail  several  times,  insert  a  rack-stick  in 
the  loops  and  twist  the  lashing  tight, 

Boat  No.  3,  from  downstream,  drops  anchor  below 
its  position  on  the  bridge,  comes  alongside  No.  2,  takes 
the  cable  of  the  upstream  anchor  dropped  by  No.  2,  is 
pushed  out  to  position,  and  draws  'both  anchor  cables 
taut. 

The  construction  of  the  bridge  thus  proceeds  by  the 
method  of  successive  bays,  and^in  the  completed  bridge 
alternate  boats  are  anchored  both  up  and  down  stream, 
the  intermediate  boats  having  no  anchors.  The  balk, 
which  are  double  over  the  boat  and  firmly  lashed  to- 
gether and  to  each  gunwale,  preserve  the  requisite  stiff- 
ness of  the  bridge. 

To  save  time  the  method  of  construction  by  parts  is 
sometimes  adopted.  (Fig.  63.)  Different  working 
parties  construct  a  number  of  sections  or  parts,  con- 
sisting ordinarily  of  three  boats.  These  are  floored 
over,  excepting  the  outer  boats  of  each  section.  Side 
rails  are  placed  aboard  but  not  lashed,  and  sufficient 
balk  and  chess  are  loaded  to  complete  the  flooring  over 
the  outer  boats  and  over  one  interval  between  boats. 
One  by  one,  these  sections  are  brought  to  the  bridge 
head,  having  first  dropped  their  anchors  or  had  them 
carried  out  by  independent  boats.  The  section  is 
pushed  out  to  the  proper  interval  as  in  the  case  of  a 
single  boat,  and  the  flooring  completed  with  the  extra 
chess.  This  method  gains  considerable  time,  and  re- 


170  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


02 

EH 
03 


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CO 

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MILITARY    BRIDGES 


172  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

suits  in  a  completed  bridge  identical  with  that  con- 
structed by  successive  bays. 

The  method  by  rafts  is  occasionally  used,  where 
boats  are  plentiful  and  extreme  haste  is  necessary. 
(Fig.  64.)  A  raft  is  similar  to  the  part  described  above, 
except  that  the  chess  are  laid  complete,  from  end  to 
end,  and  the  side  rails  placed  and  lashed.  The  bridge 
is  constructed  by  lashing  a  number  of  rafts  together, 
the  end  boats  of  each  resting  side  by  side.  The  result- 
ing bridge  is  not  satisfactory,  as  the  piers  are  com- 
posed alternately  of  one  and  two  boats.  A  load  on  the 
bridge,  therefore,  causes  unequal  settlement,  and  a 
heavy  moving  load  subjects  the  material  to  a  severe 
strain.  The  method  is  very  little  used  except  at  some 
point  in  a  bridge  where  it  may  be  necessary  to  provide 
a  draw.  (Fig.  65.) 

The  method  by  conversion,  which  comprises  con- 
struction parallel  to  the  bank  and  swinging  into  posi- 
tion by  the  current,  is  seldom  successful.  It  is  a  matter 
of  record  that  Napoleon's  engineers  once  used  this 
method  with  great  success,  his  troops  crowding  the 
bridge  and  springing  ashore  the  moment  it  landed. 
(Battle  of  Wagram,  1809.)  Hence  the  method  still 
finds  a  place  in  the  manuals  and  text  books. 

Fig.  66  shows  the  construction  «f  a  ponton  bridge 
with  the  light  equipage,  and  Fig.  67  the  construction 
with  the  reserve  equipage. 

In  crossing  the  bridge  troops  must  break  step,  mount- 
ed men  must  dismount  and  lead  their  horses,  and  every 
care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  swaying  or  oscillating 
of  the  bridge.  However  taut  the  anchor  cables  may  be 
drawn,  the  sinking  of  the  boats  under  load  will  loosen 
them,  and  some  oscillation  will  probably  result.  Those 
on  the  bridge  must  then  be  halted  until  it  ceases,  care 
being  taken  not  to  crowd  together.  In  halting,  heavy 
loads  such  as  the  wheels  of  gun  carriages,  should  rest 
between  boats. 


MILITARY    BRIDGES 


ry-V----- 

CL 


FIG. 


DRAW  IN  PONTON  BRIDGE 


The  floor  system  of  a  ponton  bridge,  with  the  balk 
overlapping  the  entire  width  of  each  boat,  is  too  stiff 
to  accommodate  itself  to  the  rise  and  fall  of  tidal 
waters  without  severe  strain,  so  there  must  be  some 
sort  of  hinge  between  the  shore  end,  the  elevation  of 


174 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


which  is  fixed,  and  the  floating  portion.  This  may  be 
accomplished  by  placing  a  saddle  sill  over  the  axis  of 
the  first  boat,  so  that  the  balk  join  at  this  sill  and  do 


FIG.    66.      CONSTRUCTION    OF    BRIDGE,    LIGHT    TRAIN 


FIG.    67.       CONSTRUCTION  OF  BRIDGE,  RESERVE  TRAIN 

not  have  two  points  of  support  at  the  gunwales.  Lack- 
ing such  a  sill,  the  shore  balk  may  be  ended  at  the  near 
gunwale  of  the  first  boat,  letting  the  balk  of  the  second 


MILITARY    BRIDGES  175 

bay  extend  entirely  across  the  boat.  The  cap  of  the 
Birago  Trestle  cannot  serve  as  a  hinge,  as  it  lies  at  a 
fixed  elevation  the  same  as  the  abutment  sill. 

To  load  pontons  of  the  reserve  train  on  their  car- 
riages, four  methods  are  practiced. 

1st.  The  rear  wheels  of  the  carriage  are  dismounted, 
and  the  boat  pushed  up  the  incline  formed  by  the  seven 
balk  already  in  place  on  the  wagon  trucks.  The  wagon 
is  then  jacked  up,  and  the  wheels  replaced. 

2nd.  The  rear  wheels  are  backed  into  a  depression, 
usually  dug  out  for  the  purpose,  and  the  same  pro- 
ceedure  followed. 

3rd.  Balks  may  be  placed  from  the  ground  at  the 
side  of  the  wagon  and  the  boat  pushed  up  the  incline 
thus  formed,  over  the  wheels  and  into  place.  This  is 
the  least  to  be  recommended  of  any  of  the  methods  here 
described. 

4th.  The  best  method  is  to  provide  a  barrel-shaped 
roller  of  sufficient  strength  (a  strong  barrel  may  be 
used  if  guided  properly),  place  it  in  front  of  the  boat, 
back  the  wagon  up  to  within  10  or  12  feet,  and  push 
or  pull  the  boat  up  over  the  roller  and  on  the  wagon. 
Such  a  roller  may  be  made  and  carried  along  with  the 
train,  in  one  of  the  boats. 

Where  the  ponton  train  is  to  be  moved  by  rail,  flat 
cars  are  used,  and  the  number  required  is  computed 
as  follows:  a  40-foot  flat  car  will  accommodate  one 
ponton  or  trestle  wagon  and  one  chess,  tool  or  forge 
wagon.  A  34-foot  car  will  carry  one  ponton  or  trestle 
wagon  or  two  of  the  shorter  wagons.  A  division  of  the 
reserve  train,  therefore,  will  require  ten  cars,  of  which 
six  must  be  40  feet  in  length,  the  others  shorter.  The 
distribution  is  as  follows: 

Four  cars,  40-ft.,  one  ponton  wagon,  one  chess 

wagon  on  each. 
One  car,  40-ft.,  one  ponton  wagon,  one  tool  wagon. 


170  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

One  car,   40-ft.,    one  ponton   wagon,   one   forge 

wagon. 

Two  cars,  34-ft.,  one  ponton  wagon  each. 
Two  cars,  34-ft.,  one  trestle  wagon  each. 

If  only  34-ft.  cars  are  available,  13  are  required,  as 
below : 

Ten  cars,  one  ponton  or  trestle  wagon  each. 
Two  cars,  two  chess  wagons  each. 
One  car,  one  tool  and  one  forge  wagon. 

To  load  the  wagons,  two  strong  skids  are  provided, 
each  about  16  feet  long,  a  foot  wide,  built  with  a  side 
rail,  and  having  hooks  at  the  upper  end  to  engage  the 
iron  sleeves  011  the  car.  These  skids  are  placed  at  the 
end  of  the  train,  their  centers  blocked  up,  and  the 
intervals  between  cars  bridged.  Or,  an  incline  may  be 
constructed  of  the  ponton  flooring.  The  wagons  may 
be  hauled  up  by  about  twenty-five  men,  walking  along 
the  cars,  or  a  snatch-block  may  be  rigged  at  the  end 
of  the  first  car  and  the  pull  made  along  the  ground,  by 
men  or  teams.  The  rope  is  attached  to  the  running 
gear  of  the  wagons,  secured  by  a  half -hitch  near  the 
end  of  the  tongue  for  guidance,  and  a  couple  of  men 
walk  up  the  skids  guiding  the  tongue.  The  wagons 
must  be  brought  up  in  their  proper  order,  a  small 
wagon  ahead  of  each  ponton  or  trestle  wagon  on  a  40-ft. 
car.  After  hauling  up,  the  wagons  are  taken  over  by 
details  of  men  and  run  along  the  train  to  their  posi- 
tions. Each  wheel  is  blocked  front  and  back,  and  addi- 
tional blocks  are  placed  outside  each  wheel,  and  con- 
nected by  2x4  's  passing  between  the  spokes.  The  latter 
may  be  replaced  by  pieces  of  old  brake  hose,  passing 
through  the  wheels  and  nailed  to  the  car  floor  outside 
and  inside  each  wheel.  Tongues  are  removed  and  made 
fast  under  the  wagons  to  which  they  belong. 

In  detraining,  the  wagons  are  best  let  down  the  skids 
by  snubbing  the  rope  on  a  post  formed  by  driving  a 


MILITARY    BRIDGES  177 

piece  of  4x4  timber  into  one  of  the  iron  sleeves  at  the 
front  end  of  the  car. 

The  entraining  or  detraining  of  a  division  of  the 
ponton  train  should  be  accomplished  in  about  1% 
hours,  with  ordinary  troops,  under  competent  super- 
vision. If  a  long  loading  platform  the  height  of  the 
cars  is  available,  the  wagons  may  be  loaded  from  the 
side,  a  number  at  once,  and  in  much  less  time. 

It  is  a  popular  opinion  that  the  ponton  bridge  is 
like  a  picture  puzzle,  each  part  cut  and  fitted,  and 
easily  assembled.  On  the  contrary,  each  bridge  built 
is  a  separate  problem,  which  calls  for  much  hard  labor 
and  considerable  ingenuity.  Highly  trained  troops 
are  required  to  operate  the  train  and  skilled  mechanics 
to  maintain  it  in  condition  for  immediate  use. 


XIII. 

TOPOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHING. 

HOW  DIFFERING  FROM  SURVEYING  METHODS. 

Military  sketching  differs  from  the  ordinary  opera- 
tions of  surveying  chiefly  in  the  time  required  and  the 
accuracy  of  the  completed  work.  An  error  of  10  or 
15  per  cent,  in  the  length  of  a  road  will  not  make  so 
much  difference  to  the  commander  if  he  can  tell  from 
the  sketch  about  the  time  it  will  take  to  march  the 
distance,  whether  the  grades  are  practicable  for  his 
trains,  and  something  of  the  topography  on  either 
side.  Nor  is  the  exact  height  of  a  hill  of  so  much  im- 
portance as  its  shape,  whether  there  is  dead  space 
on  its  slopes,  where  it  is  too  steep  to  assault,  etc. 

To  the  average  engineer,  the  contours  on  a  map  are 
simply  the  statement  of  a  mathematical  problem; 
given:  these  contours,  required:  to  compute  excava- 
tion, locate  gradients  or  balance  cut  and  fill.  To  the 
military  engineer,  they  mean  ground  forms,  and  his 
problems  deal  with  dead  space,  visibility  and  com- 
mand. It  is  often  of  vital  importance  to  know  whether 
a  certain  stretch  of  road  is  visible  from  an  observation 
station,  over  the  top  of  an  intervening  hill.  Upon  the 
correct  solution  of  this  problem  depends  the  sending 
of  troops  by  that  route  when  their  movements  must  be 
concealed  from  the  enemy.  The  engineer,  in  making 
his  map,  works  for  accuracy,  determining  the  location 
and  elevation  of  ruling  points  and  drawing  the  con- 
tours among  them.  The  military  sketcher  works  to 
picturize  information,  traversing  the  drainage  lines  as 
a  skeleton  and  building  around  them  by  contours  the 
ground  forms  which  he  sees. 

178 


TOPOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHING          179 

Major  Sherrill,  in  his ' '  Military  Topography, ' '  says : 
No  man  can  become  an  excellent  sketcher  until  he 
involuntarily  sees  the  map  forms  which  would  corre- 
spond to  the  ground  observed;  nor  can  he  ~be  a  perfect 
map  reader  or  scout  until  to  see  a  map  is  at  once  to 
picture  to  himself  intuitively  the  ground  forms  from 
which  the  map  was  made. 

Sketches  must  be  made  rapidly.  The  information 
must  be  turned  in  at  the  end  of  each  day's  march,  and 
the  sketcher  must  keep  pace  with  an  infantry  column 
covering  2y2  to  3  miles  per  hour.  To  sketch  at  this 
rate  and  deliver  a  contoured  map  with  all  required 
information  necessitates  careful  training  and  consid- 
erable practice. 

It  is  certain  that  nothing  in  the  way  of  a  topograph- 
ical survey  can  be  undertaken  in  the  field  during  hos- 
tilities, even  by  reconnaissance  methods.  The  informa- 
tion would  not  be  available  as  soon  as  wanted,  and  the 
sketchers  could  not  advance  in  front  of  their  own 
forces  to  map  the  ground  on  account  of  interference 
by  the  enemy.  For  the  proper  conduct  of  operations 
on  a  large  scale,  therefore,  dependence  must  be  placed 
upon  maps  prepared  before  war  is  declared,  and  the 
great  usefulness  of  the  sketcher  lies  in  the  correction 
and  amplification  of  existing  maps,  and  in  making 
road  maps  and  position  sketches  covering  small  areas. 
The  very  fact  that  topographers  must  stay  with  their 
own  troops,  has  the  effect  of  limiting  their  usefulness 
to  a  great  extent.  They  cannot  map  a  position  until 
it  is  occupied,  therefore  the  information  contained  in 
their  sketches  can  be  of  no  use  in  effecting  the  occu- 
pation, and  similarly  as  regards  mapping  a  road  in 
time  to  route  the  line  of  march.  However,  sketchers 
with  reconnaissance  patrols  may  be  able  to  gain  quite 
a  distance  to  the  front  and  turn  in  sketches  which, 
while  fragmentary,  may,  in  conjunction  with  existing 
maps  and  fragments  turned  in  by  others,  furnish  very 


180  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

useful  information  to  the  commander.  No  feature  of 
the  terrain  that  might  be  of  military  value,  therefore, 
should  be  overlooked  by  the  sketeher,  whether  that 
value  be  apparent  to  him  or  not.  An  engineer  would 
not  think  of  designing  a  foundation  without  the  fullest 
information  regarding  the  site,  but  the  military  com- 
mander can  never  be  fully  informed.  He  must  con- 
sider all  the  information  that  he  has,  sift  the  true  from 
the  false  as  well  as  he  is  able,  and  base  his  action  upon 
the  partial  knowledge  that  remains. 

INSTRUMENTS   USED. 

The  small  plane  table,  about  14  inches  square,  with 
a  compass  needle  set  in  one  edge  and  mounted  upon 
a  light  camera  tripod,  is  the  most  useful  instrument 
for  mapping.  The  map  is  made  complete  as  the  survey 
progresses  and  nothing  is  left  to  fill  in  or  to  be  com- 
pleted later,  as  the  sketch  must  be  turned  in  at  the 
end  of  each  day,  as  soon  as  camp  is  reached,  to  begin 
the  work  of  matching  and  reproduction. 

The  sketching  case,  Fig.  68,  is  a  small  plane  table, 
intended  to  be  used  without  a  tripod.  In  use,  it  is 
strapped  to  the  wrist  or  carried  in  the  hand,  and  is 
for  that  reason  particularly  adapted  to  mounted 
sketching.  A  compass  is  mounted  in  the  top  edge  of 
the  board,  and  two  rollers  are  provided  to  keep  the 
strip  of  paper  stretched.  A  map  much  longer  than 
the  board  may  be  drawn  by  rolling  up  the  completed 
sketch  on  one  roller  and  feeding  fresh  paper  from  the 
other.  The  alidade  is  in  the  form  of  a  jointed  brass 
ruler,  pivoted  to  the  top  edge.  The  board  may  be  used 
to  read  vertical  angles  by  loosening  the  pivot  screw 
of  the  alidade,  holding  the  board  in  a  vertical  plane 
and  sighting  across  the  screws  at  the  top,  allowing  the 
alidade  to  swing  freely.  The  angle  is  read  on  the  scale 
at  the  base  of  the  board.  The  cover  of  the  compass 
can  be  revolved  by  a  stud  set  at  one  side,  and  two 


TOPOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHING 


181 


O^-7      270  1.0  0  I 

/.  //  //  ,  /  /  /I  I  //  I  I  I  I  I     II  lllLLLLLj 


FIG.    68.      RECONNAISSANCE   INSTRUMENTS 


182  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

parallel  wires  are  mounted  on  the  cover  glass,  revolv- 
ing with  it.  In  commencing  a  sketch,  the  board  is 
pointed  in  the  desired  direction,  the  needle  allowed  to 
come  to  rest,  and  the  wires  revolved  to  a  position  paral- 
lel to  the  needle.  They  must  not  be  again  moved 
during  the  making  of  the  sketch.  In  taking  each  sight, 
the  board  must  be  oriented  by  turning  it  until  the 
needle  comes  to  rest  between  and  parallel  to  the  two 
wires,  or  swings  equally  on  each  side  of  their  axis. 
In  sighting,  the  board  is  not  raised  to  the  height  of 
the  eye  and  the  alidade  aimed  at  the  point,  but  is  held 
in  front  of  the  body  and  the  ruler  pointed  by  looking 
alternately  at  the  point  and  the  ruler,  as  in  plumbing 
down  from  a  high  point  by  eye.  In  Fig.  68  the  detail 
at  the  right  is  of  the  clamp  screw  on  the  alidade. 
Loosening  the  small  top  screw  C1  permits  revolving 
the  lower  link  about  the  pivot,  while  the  large  screw 
C  controls  the  motion  of  the  pivot  along  the  slotted 
upper  link.  The  lower  detail  shows  the  end  of  the 
pencil  slot  under  the  board. 

Below  the  sketching  case,  Fig.  68,  is  shown  the 
Abney  Clinometer,  used  to  read  vertical  angles.  The 
line  of  sight  through  the  tube  is  divided,  half  of  the 
object  end  being  open,  with  a  horizontal  wire  across 
its  center,  the  other  half  is  closed  by  a  diagonal  mirror, 
permitting  a  view  of  the  bubble  which  is  mounted  above 
the  tube.  The  bubble  and  the  target  can  thus  be  seen 
at  the  same  time,  and  if  the  bubble  is  brought  to  the 
center,  the  graduated  arc  will  give  the  angle  of  eleva- 
tion or  depression.  The  clinometer  may  be  used  as  a 
hand  level  by  clamping  the  circle  at  zero  and  keeping 
the  bubble  in  the  center  of  its  tube  while  sighting. 

The  service  clinometer  (lower  right-hand  corner  of 
Fig.  68),  is  used  for  the  same  purpose,  but  depends 
upon  a  weighted  pendulum  in  place  of  a  bubble.  The 
line  of  sight  is  through  the  eye  hole,  L  and  the  orifice 
N.  A  small  mirror  is  mounted  at  the  center  of  the 


TOPOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHING  183 

instrument  and  reflects  to  the  eye  a  circular  scale 
mounted  on  the  pendulum  and  illuminated  by  the  glass 
window  shown.  The  scale  is  graduated  in  degrees  and 
is  seen  at  the  same  time  as  the  target,  so  that  the  ver- 
tical angle  is  read  direct.  When  the  scale  reads  zero 
the  line  of  sight  is  level  and  the  instrument  may  be 
used  as  a  hand  level.  The  pendulum  is  released  to 
revolve  by  pressing  the  button  F  which,  in  turn,  may 
be  locked  by  pushing  forward  the  slide  H.  This  in- 
strument is  quicker  of  operation,  but  not  so  accurate 
as  the  Abney  type.  It  is  sufficiently  accurate,  however, 
to  meet  all  requirements  of  military  sketching. 

The  prismatic  compass  (lower  left-hand  corner  of 
Fig.  68)  is  used  to  read  bearing  or  azimuths,  the  card 
being  usually  graduated  to  read  clockwise  360  degrees 
from  the  north.  The  cover  lifts  to  a  vertical  position 
and  forms  the  front  sight.  The  prism  turns  up  over 
the  edge  and  forms  the  rear  sight,  allowing  at  the  same 
time  a  view  of  the  edge  of  the  compass  card,  rotating 
beneath  it.  A  push  button  under  the  front  hinge  stops 
the  card  at  will,  so  by  checking  it  in  the  middle  of  its 
swing  it  may  be  more  quickly  brought  to  rest. 

The  aneroid  barometer  is  used  to  find  differences 
of  elevation.  It  gives  best  results  when  the  start  and 
end  of  the  survey  are  at  points  of  known  elevation, 
allowing  interpolation  for  intermediate  points,  or 
when  used  in  conjunction  with  a  standard  barometer 
read  regularly  at  one  station  to  register  atmospheric 
changes. 

METHODS. 

The  plane  Table  is  set  up  at  the  starting  point,  ori- 
ented by  compass,  and  the  position  of  the  first  station 
is  assumed  on  the  board,  having  due  regard  for  the 
direction  in  which  the  sketch  will  proceed  and  the  area 
to  be  covered.  With  the  edge  of  the  alidade  passing 
through  this  initial  point,  a  pointing  is  made  towards 
the  next  station  and  a  line  drawn  along  the  edge.  Sim- 


184  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

ilar  sights  are  taken  and  lines  drawn  in  the  direction 
of  various  features  which  it  is  desired  to  locate  upon 
the  map.  The  distance  to  these  points  may  be  measured 
by  pacing  or  may  be  estimated,  or  a  second  sight  taken 
towards  them  from  another  station,  the  intersection  of 
the  two  giving  the  location.  Angles  of  elevation  or 
depression  may  be  read  by  the  clinometer,  as  an  aid 
to  contouring.  When  ready  to  move,  the  board  is 
taken  up  and  the  sketcher  walks  towards  the  second 
station,  counting  his  paces  or  keeping  a  record  of  them 
with  a  pace  tally,  which  is  a  watch-shaped  counting 
device  held  in  the  hand  and  actuated  by  pressing  the 
stem  at  each  stride  or  step.  As  he  proceeds  he  keeps 
mental  or  written  notes  that  at  90  paces  a  house  was 
passed,  30  paces  to  the  right  of  the  road,  at  145  paces 
a  stream  was  crossed  on  a  wooden  truss,  40  ft.  long  x 
16  ft.  wide  x  12  ft.  high,  at  181  paces  a  railroad  was 
crossed  at  grade,*  making  an  angle  of  60  degrees  with 
the  road,  etc.  Upon  arriving  at  the  next  station  the 
board  is  set  up,  and  oriented  by  compass  or  by  back- 
sight. Using  a  scale  of  his  own  paces,  he  first  plots  the 
distance  between  the  stations  along  the  line  already 
drawn,  thus  locating  Station  2.  The  notes  taken  along 
the  way  are  then  plotted,  then  a  sight  taken  to  the 
next  station,  and  to  various  side  points.  The  survey 
proceeds  by  repeating  these  operations. 

Mapping  is  done  with  a  soft  pencil  upon  vellum 
tracing  paper,  or,  in  wet  weather,  upon  sheets  of 
celluloid,  roughened  on  one  side  to  take  pencil  lines. 
Sketches  upon  this  material  are  not  damaged  by  rain. 

The  sketching  case  is  used  in  exactly  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  sketching  board,  except  that  it  cannot  be 
oriented  by  backsights  unless  placed  in  a  steady  posi- 
tion upon  a  fence  post,  the  ground,  a  stone,  etc.  Maps 
drawn  with  the  sketching  case  are  not  so  accurate  as 
those  made  with  the  sketching  board,  as  the  pointings 
or  orientations  cannot  be  made  so  closely. 


TOPOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHING  185 

The  Prismatic  Compass  is  useful  in  running  tra- 
verses for  control,  or  to  obtain  bearings  to  important 
objects.  If  used  for  filling  in,  it  either  takes  two 
men,  one  to  read  bearings  and  the  other  to  plot  and 
sketch,  or  one  man  must  do  both  and  take  twice  as 
long,  or  the  plotting  must  wait  until  the  reconnais- 
sance is  completed  and  must  be  done  out  of  sight  of 
the  ground  to  be  sketched,  which  means  that  more 
elaborate  notes  must  be  taken  to  aid  his  memory. 

The  Engineer  Note  Book,  Figs.  69  and  70,  shows  a 
method  once  much  used.  The  two  plates  are  almost 
self-explanatory.  The  record  is  started  at  the  bottom 
on  the  left-hand  page,  the  record  of  distances  and  the 
alignment  is  kept  in  the  center  column,  also  azimuths 
of  side  shots.  In  the  columns  on  either  side  of  the 
center  are  placed  the  offset  distances,  and  in  the  outer 
columns  the  descriptions.  Azimuths  are  read  by  the 
prismatic  compass.  On  the  right-hand  page,  Fig.  70, 
is  shown  the  plot  of  the  notes  in  Fig.  69. 

Contouring. 

For  assistance  in  contouring,  a  device  known  as  a 
scale  of  map  distances  is  used.  On  a  map  of  a  given 
scale  contours  of,  say  10  feet  interval,  are  spaced  a 
certain  distance  apart  on  a  1  degree  slope.  On  a  map 
of  half  the  scale  this  distance  is  reduced  one-half,  but 
on  a  map  of  half  the  scale  and  twice  the  contour  inter- 
val, the  contours  will  be  spaced  the  same  distance  apart 
for  a  1  degree  slope  as  in  the  first  map.  Similarly  for 
slopes  of  different  degrees. 

In  the  U.  S.  Army,  three  principal  scales  are  used 
for  sketching,  as  follows. 

Representative        Contour 
Nature  of  sketch.  Scale.  fraction.  interval. 


Road  sketch 3  in.  =  1  mile 

Position  sketch    6  in.  =  1  mile 

Fortification   sketch .     12  in.  —  1  mile        1 


21  120         20  Ft. 
10  560         10  Ft. 
5  280          5  Ft. 


186 


PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 


ffiem  arks  Left. 


Courses  & 
Distances 


ffiyfit. 


J?e7?zar£s  flight. 


Crossed  wagon  road- 


-.Cu/f.. 


3266- 


SOO--> 


-_JUL.,94 


Cr. 


SO  0- -2300. 


ros  sect  u/aptn.  r-oacL. 
jec?  dry  Cr. 


26  a.  _, 


•eeA  3O 

ootfj  a/os)j  Cr.. 


.--440-JS2CL 


f6SO. 


7*4.** 


eb  Mowing?  u/ayonroad— 


6*30"" 

o  /"  Alt  eft's  fan  ces  in  J 


Sept.  *fth.f900. 

FIG.    69.      ENGINEER   NOTE   BOOK 


TOPOGRAPHICAL    SKETCHING 

Alpine 


187 


SCALE  1—1 — L_J 


SCALE   L 


FIG.    70.      ENGINEER   NOTE   BOOK 


188  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

It  will  be  noted  in  this  table  that  as  the  scale  is  in- 
creased the  contour  interval  is  reduced  in  like  ratio, 
so  the  same  map  distances  will  apply  to  maps  of  all 
three  scales.  (Fig.  71.)  The  use  of  this  scale  is  simple 

r° 

0  o     .,0 


Scale  r-5280~VJ. 

»      !••  10560  -V.1.  =  10  ft 


FIG.    71.      SCALE    OF    MAP    DISTANCES 

and  will  often  obviate  the  necessity  of  referring  to  a 
table  to  find  differences  of  elevation. 

A  hill  to  the  side  of  the  road  is  located  by  intersec- 
tion and  plotted.  The  slope  from  the  station  to  its 
summit  is  measured  by  a  clinometer  or  slope  board  and 
found  to  be  2  degrees.  It  is  then  determined  by  trial 
how  many  times  the  map  distance  for  2  degrees  will  fit 
into  the  plotted  distance  to  the  hill.  This  figure  gives 
the  number  of  contours  which  must  be  drawn  between 
the  two  points  on  the  map,  and,  multiplied  by  the  con- 
tour interval,  gives  the  difference  of  elevation.  If 
the  slope  between  the  points  is  uniform,  the  contours 
are  spaced  equally,  according  to  the  map  distance.  If 
flat  for  half  the  distance,  no  contours  are  drawn  in 
this  half  and  the  total  number  are  crowded  into  the 
other  half.  If  the  slope  is  concave  the  contours  will 
show  it  by  being  drawn  closer  together  near  the  summit 
and  vice-versa. 

Figs.  72  and  73  show  the  ordinary  topographical 
symbols  used  in  military  mapping.  When  pressed  for 
time,  the  sketcher  will  not  fill  in  a  space  with  symbols, 
but  will  draw  a  wavy  line  around  it  and  write 
"Woods,"  "Cult,"  etc.  inside. 


TOPOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHING 


ISO 


Woods.      Grass  or  meadow.   Cultivated.          Orchard.        Rice  swamps 

-ditch  and  dikes. 


Sand  Mud  and          Salt  marsh.       Fresh  marsh         Cypress 

and  gravel.         Tidal  Flats.  pond.  swamp. 


Enclosures. 
Wire  Fe-nce 


Communications. 


Stone  fence. 

363S3GOC3 

Hedge. 


Public  Road.      ,  T      T     T     T 

Telegraph. 


Wagon  trail. 


Foot  or  bridle  trail. 

..     x  20' 

Fill 


20' 

Cut 


'in  ii  if  i  mm  mil' 

R.R.  single  track. 


R.R.  double  track. 


Tunnel. 


Bridges. 


FIG.   72.      TOPOGRAPHICAL   SYMBOLS 


100  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

Military  Signs. 
1  nf  antry 

In  column     D-D- D-D- a- D-  Redoubt 


Cavalry 

In  column     EBB  KB 


A  A  A  A-A  A 

A.AAAAA 


Trenches 


Artillery  * 

Sentrv         £ 

Headquarters 

Battle 

Palisades 


Wire 
entanglement 


•!•  J- 


Mortar 
battery 


Abattis 


Chevauxde 


Miscellaneous. 


Church 


Cemetery 


I  Blacksmith  Shop 
Wagon  Shoo 

8.M.          Saw  Mill 


Wind  Mill 


0.M.         Grist  Mill 
FIG.     73.      TOPOGRAPHICAL    SYMBOLS 


TOPOGRAPHICAL   SKETCHING 


191 


FIG.    74.      ROAD    SKETCH 


102  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  KNCJTNEER 

Fig.  74  shows  a  road  sketch  reproduced  from  Sher- 
rnTs  "Military  Topography "  which  will  give  a  fair 
idea  of  the  character  of  work  done. 

VISIBILITY. 

One  of  the  problems  which  confront  the  military 
man  in  reading  maps  is  the  determination  of 
the  visibility  of  one  point  from  another.  This  is  of 
importance  in  laying  out  a  field  of  fire  to  avoid  dead 
space,  and  in  movements  of  troops  which  must  be  con- 
cealed from  the  enemy.  The  problem  can  sometimes 
be  solved  by  inspection,  as  when  the  difference  of  eleva- 
tion of  the  points  in  question  is  large  and  the  inter- 
vening point  is  not  much  higher  than  the  lower  of  the 
two,  or  when  the  height  of  the  intermediate  point  lies 
about  halfway  between  the  two  end  points  and  it  is 
situated  nearer  the  high  end.  On  a  concave  slope 
points  will  be  visible  from  all  other  points,  and  vice 
versa. 

By  scaling  the  distances  between  points  and  taking 
their  differences  of  elevation  as  shown  by  the  contours, 
the  slopes  may  be  computed  and  compared  to  deter- 
mine visibility,  or,  as  a  final  resort,  a  complete  profile 
may  be  constructed  from  the  map  and  a  straight-edge 
applied  to  see  whether  the  line  of  sight  will  clear  the 
obstacle.  The  labor  of  applying  this  method  to  a  map 
to  outline  a  complete  zone  of  dead  ground  from  a  cer- 
tain position  would  be  considerable,  however,  and  it 
is  usually  only  the  doubtful  points  which  are  thus 
treated.  In  all  visibility  problems  the  presence  of  trees 
and  other  vegetation  must  be  considered  and  allowed 
for.  If  the  location  of  a  trench  is  in  question  the 
visibility  must  be  determined  upon  the  actual  ground. 

MAP    REPRODUCTION. 

When  the  sketches  are  turned  in  at  night,  they  are 
matched,  closures  forced  by  cutting  and  pasting,  and 


TOPOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHING  193 

the  whole  combined  sketch  is  reproduced  for  sending 
out  with  the  orders  for  the  following  day.  In  opera- 
tions involving  large  bodies  of  troops,  maps  are  needed 
in  considerable  numbers,  and  it  becomes  necessary  to 
employ  a  method  of  reproduction  which  is  rapid  and 
capable  of  producing  work  in  quantity. 

Blue-printing  is  about  the  simplest  process,  but  is 
very  slow,  especially  when  done  at  night  under  such 
artificial  light  as  is  available  in  the  field,  so  a  litho- 
graphic method  has  been  developed  for  field  use,  differ- 
ing from  true  lithography  in  that  a  zinc  plate  is  used 
instead  of  a  stone.  The  process  is  called  zincography 
and  the  machine  with  which  the  work  is  done  is  called 
the  zincograph. 

The  equipment  consists  of  a  working  table,  a  press 
resembling  a  large  clothes  wringer,  an  ink  roller,  the 
various  chemicals  and  solutions  used,  and  the  container, 
which  is  a  large  three-storied  chest,  in  the  upper  com- 
partment of  which  is  stored  the  press,  and  in  the  lower 
two  the  solutions  and  supplies.  There  are  two  processes 
by  which  drawings  may  be  reproduced,  one  of  which  is 
dependent  upon  sunlight  or  some  strong  artificial  light, 
the  other  of  which  requires  no  such  light  but  necessi- 
tates copying  the  entire  drawing  to  be  reproduced. 

In  the  latter,  or  transfer  process,  the  zinc  plate  is 
of  a  No.  19  B.  &  S.  gage,  and  has  been  so  treated  as  to 
give  the  surface  a  slight  grain.  This  may  be  accom- 
plished by  immersing  the  polished  plate  in  a  solution 
consisting  of  one  gallon  of  water,  two  oz.  nitric  acid 
(commercial)  and  one  oz.  of  alum.  The  result  is  a 
dull  satin  gloss  finish.  The  drawing  to  be  reproduced 
is  traced  on  a  thin  coated  india  paper  known  as  auto- 
graphic transfer  paper,  with  transfer  ink,  such  as  is 
used  in  the  hectograph  process.  Care  must  be  taken 
not  to  touch  the  surface  of  the  paper  with  the  bare 
hand,  as  the  natural  grease  of  the  skin  will  cause  all 
finger  prints  to  be  reproduced  in  the  finished  print. 


194  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

The  tracing  is  then  placed  between  two  moistened 
sheets  of  blotting  paper  until  it  has  become  thoroughly 
dampened.  It  is  now  ready  to  transfer  to  the  plate. 

The  dampened  drawing  is  placed  face  down  on  the 
grained  surface  of  the  zinc  plate,  which  is  then  run 
through  the  press  several  times,  moistening  the  draw- 
ing at  intervals  with  a  wet  sponge.  The  paper  can 
now  be  peeled  off,  leaving  the  ink  lines  on  the  plate. 
The  plate  is  dried  by  fanning  and  then  covered  with 
a  thin  coating  of  gum  solution,  which  is  made  by  boil- 
ing one  pound  of  dextrine  in  a  pint  of  water.  The  plate 
is  then  given  a  coat  of  ink,  applied  with  a  piece  of 
cheese-cloth,  and  sponged  with  water.  The  latter  oper- 
ation removes  the  ink  from  that  portion  of  the  plate 
not  occupied  by  the  lines  of  the  drawing.  If  these  lines 
do  not  now  show  up  well,  the  operation  is  repeated  until 
all  lines  are  well  defined.  Any  line  that  has  not  trans- 
ferred to  the  plate  may  be  drawn  upon  it  with  a  pen 
or  a  fine  brush.  While  the  plate  is  still  damp  from 
the  last  sponging,  it  is  worked  over  with  the  ink  roller, 
the  ink  from  which  adheres  to  the  lines,  but  may  be 
easily  wiped  off  from  the  damp  portions  of  the  plate. 
After  removing  the  surplus  ink,  the  plate  is  dusted 
with  powdered  resin  and  again  sponged  with  water. 

In  order  to  print  from  the  smooth  plate,  it  must  be 
treated  so  the  ink  from  the  roller  will  adhere  to  the 
lines  and  not  to  the  remainder  of  the  plate.  Ink  will 
take  on  a  greasy  surface  but  not  upon  one  which  is 
damp,  and  in  order  to  insure  a  moist  surface  on  the 
plate,  it  is  etched  with  nitric  acid  and  the  etched  por- 
tion filled  with  gum,  to  which  the  ink  will  not  adhere. 
The  etching  solution  consists  of  4  oz.  of  nitric  acid  in 
two  gallons  of  water.  The  powdered  resin  is  only  a 
partial  protection  for  the  ink  lines,  therefore  the  plate 
must  not  be  left  in  the  etching  solution  more  than 
about  one  minute.  Upon  removal  from  the  acid,  the 
plate  is  sponged  with  water,  dried,  and  the  gum  solu- 


TOPOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHING  195 

tion  poured  over  it,  the  surplus  being  allowed  to  run 
off. 

Printing  is  now  done  by  moistening  the  plate  with 
damp  cheese  cloth,  inking  it  with  the  roller,  covering  it 
with  the  paper  and  running  it  through  the  press.  The 
first  print  can  be  obtained  in  from  15  to  30  minutes 
after  the  tracing  is  made,  depending  upon  the  amount 
of  building-up  required  by  the  ink  lines.  For  rapid 
printing  two  men  are  required.  No.  1  dampens  the 
plate,  No.  2  inks  it  with  a  hard  roller  from  an  ink  slab, 
No.  1  inserts  it  in  the  press  and  No.  2  turns  the  crank 
of  the  press.  Copies  can  be  printed  at  the  rate  of  six 
per  minute. 

The  second  process  depends  upon  contact  printing, 
and  requires  a  strong  light,  preferably  the  sun.  As 
most  of  this  work  in  the  field  must  be  done  at  night, 
however,  this  process  will  not  be  much  used.  The  plate 
is  sensitized  with  a  solution  consisting  of  120  grains  of 
dry  albumen  or  the  white  of  one  egg,  15  grains  of  am- 
monium dichromate  and  7  oz.  of  water.  The  plate  must 
be  thoroughly  cleaned  before  applying  the  sensitizing 
solution,  and  after  the  latter  has  dried  the  plate  must 
not  be  exposed  to  the  light.  A  maduro  negative  must 
first  be  made  of  the  map  to  be  reproduced,  which  may 
be  printed  from  the  patched-up  field  sketches.  The 
plate  is  then  placed  in  a  printing  frame  with  the  nega- 
tive, which  latter  must  face  away  from  the  plate,  to  in- 
sure lettering,  etc.,  reading  correctly  on  the  finished 
print.  The  exposure  depends  upon  the  intensity  of  the 
light,  and  also  upon  the  transparency  of  the  negative, 
varying  from  10  to  15  minutes.  The  progress  of  the 
printing  may  be  observed  by  opening  the  frame  at  in- 
tervals, care  being  taken  not  to  alter  the  relative  posi- 
tions of  the  plate  and  the  negative. 

Immediately  upon  removal  from  the  printing  frame, 
the  whole  plate  is  covered  with  ink  from  the  roller,  to 
prevent  further  action  by  light.  It  is  then  developed 


196  PREPAREDNESS  AND  TTTE  ENflTNEER 

in  water,  as  in  the  ordinary  blue  print  process.  While 
still  immersed  in  the  water  the  ink  may  be  wiped  off 
with  cheese-cloth.  When  fully  developed  the  plate  is 
removed  from  the  water  and  dried  b}^  fanning,  then 
dusted  with  powdered  resin,  the  surplus  of  which  is 
wiped  off.  The  process  of  etching  and  printing  then 
proceeds  as  in  the  first  method. 

The  plate  may  be  prepared  for  further  use  by  remov- 
ing the  ink  with  turpentine  and  washing  thoroughly 
with  lye.  Regraining  is  necessary  only  after  the  plate 
has  been  used  a  number  of  times. 

The  first  method  is  better  adapted  to  field  use,  but 
the  second  will  do  finer  work.  It  is  even  possible  to  re- 
produce photographs  by  printing  from  a  film  or  nega- 
tive on  the  sensitized  plate. 

The  zincograph  is  a  part  of  the  equipment  carried 
by  the  engineer  battalion  in  the  field.  Each  company 
is  equipped  with  a  clay  hectograph,  from  which  about 
50  copies  can  be  made  from  one  impression. 

The  sketch  is  copied  in  transfer  ink,  laid  face  down 
upon  the  level  clay  surface  and  allowed  to  remain  for 
one  or  two  minutes.  Printing  is  done  by  laying  blank 
sheets  of  paper  on  the  clay,  smoothing  them  out  and 
taking  them  off  immediately.  Sketches  may  be  repro- 
duced by  this  method  in  three  colors. 

LANDSCAPE  SKETCHING. 

Sometimes  information  may  be  better  conveyed  by 
a  landscape  sketch  than  by  a  map,  particularly  as  to 
relief.  It  may  take  a  great  deal  of  mapping  to  make 
clear  what  can  often  be  shown  by  a  few 
strokes  of  the  pencil.  The  sketch  also  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  showing  in  detail  just  what  points  it  is  de- 
sired to  bring  out,  leaving  non-essentials  out  entirely  or 
subordinating  them  to  the  important  points.  A  photo- 
graph cannot  do  this,  as  it  must  show  all  that  is  before 


TOPOGRAPHICAL  SKETCHING 


197 


198  PREPAREDNESS  AND  THE  ENGINEER 

the  camera,  and  in  its  very  accuracy  and  fidelity  to 
actual  conditions,  the  military  information  which  it  is 
desired  to  emphasize  may  be  entirely  lost. 

Fig.  75  is  an  excellent  example  of  a  sketch  of  this 
character,  reproduced  from  the  Engineer  Field  Man- 
ual. This  shows  features  which  would  have  necessitat- 
ed actually  traversing  the  terrain  and  the  expenditure 
of  much  time  to  show  on  a  map,  and  even  then  the  in- 
formation would  not  stand  out  at  a  glance  as  it  does  in 
the  sketch. 

In  making  a  sketch  of  this  character  the  pad  is  held 
out  in  front  of  the  eye  until  it  covers  the  area  intended 
to  be  drawn.  Then,  lowering  it  slightly,  the  position 
of  the  various  hill  tops,  road  crossings,  etc.,  which  it  is 
desired  to  show  are  marked  off  on  the  upper  edge  of  the 
pad.  Similarly,  the  vertical  distances  are  marked  off 
on  one  side  of  the  pad.  The  co-ordinates  of  all  the  im- 
portant points  are  thus  determined  and  the  completion 
of  the  sketch  consists  of  connecting  these  points  and 
filling  in  such  detail  as  may  be  required.  Heavy  lines 
are  used  for  outlines  of  objects  in  the  foreground, 
medium  for  those  at  mid-distance  and  light  for  distant 
objects. 

An  excellent  treatise  upon  the  subject  is  M.  Lefeb- 
vre's  "Military  Landscape  Sketching, "  translated  by 
Capt.  Judson,  Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army,  and 
published  as ' '  Occasional  Papers  No.  3  "  by  the  Engine- 
er School,  Washington  Barracks,  Washington,  D.  C. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
NEEDS  OF  THE  ENGINEERS  IN  WAR. 

The  foregoing  chapters  have  presented  a  very  incom- 
plete outline  of  some  of  the  engineering  duties  and  a 
few  of  the  military  duties  which  will  devolve  upon  the 
engineer  company  officer  in  time  of  war.  These  sub- 
jects are  large  and  have  barely  been  touched  upon  in 
this  discussion,  and  there  are  others  which  have  not 
even  been  mentioned.  Nothing  has  been  said  upon  the 
subject  of  infantry  tactics,  which  will  probably  occupy 
as  much  of  an  officer's  time  as  the  technical  work.  Sim- 
ilarly, no  mention  has  been  made  of  the  services  of  se- 
curity and  information,  with  their  subdivisions  of  out- 
posts, advance  and  rear  guards,  patrolling  and  minor 
tactics.  Camp  sanitation,  though  often  introducing 
problems  in  disposal  of  waste  and  protection  of  food 
and  water  supply  which  would  tax  the  ingenuity  of  the 
average  municipal  sanitary  engineer,  has  been  omitted, 
and  also  the  subject  of  military  law  and  government. 
Coming  down  to  the  field  of  engineering  itself,  there 
will  be  found  no  mention  of  roads  and  railways,  though 
not  every  engineer  knows  how  to  lay  a  corduroy  road 
correctly  or  that  the  gage  of  a  military  railway  is  made 
4'-9",  to  allow  for  irregularities  of  track  laying.  All 
these  things  are  beyond  the  scope  of  a  work  of  this  char- 
acter, the  main  purpose  of  which  is  to  point  out  the  way 
for  the  engineer,  not  to  instruct  him.  It  is  hoped,  there- 
fore, that  the  material  presented  will  give  an  idea  of 
the  magnitude  of  the  problems  which  will  confront  en- 
gineers in  war  and  point  out  the  necessity  of  individual 
preparation. 

Need  of  Officers  and  Non-commissioned  Officers.  The 
army  which  would  be  required  by  the  United  States  as 

199 


200  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE  ENGINEER 

a  defense  against  invasion  is  placed  by  the  most  con- 
servative estimates  at  one  million  men.  In  the  Civil 
War  we  called  two  million  and  a  half  men  to  the  colors, 
and  that  was  before  the  days  of  large  armies.  With  an 
army  of  one  million  we  should  need  60,000  engineers, 
of  whom  2,000  would  be  officers  and  11,500  non-com- 
missioned officers.  The  latter  are  as  important  to  the 
army  as  the  officers,  and  particularly  so  in  the  engin- 
eers. No  man  should  hold  a  corporal's  warrant  who  is 
not  fully  capable  of  performing  the  duties  of  a  foreman 
of  construction  on  civil  works,  and  the  grade  of  ser- 
geant requires  a  man  competent  to  fill  the  position  of 
overseer  or  superintendent  on  a  construction  job. 
Every  engineer  must  not  think  that  his  training  would 
in  itself  entitle  him  to  a  commission.  Many  who  enter- 
tain this  view  might  find  it  difficult  to  hold  down  a  ser- 
geant's job.  It  is,  however,  within  the  reach  of  every 
engineer  to  qualify  himself  for  a  commission,  and  those 
who  do  not  are  contributing  to  the  shortage  of  officers 
which  will  occur  upon  the  outbreak  of  war,  as  well  as 
depriving  themselves  of  a  military  position  on  a  par 
with  their  education  and  social  connections. 

First-class  privates  of  engineers  are  skilled  work- 
men :  carpenters,  blacksmiths,  machinists,  riggers, 
electricians,  and  mechanics  of  all  kinds.  Technical 
men  can  even  find  a  place  in  the  ranks  as  sketchers, 
etc.  Second-class  privates  are  of  the  class  of  outdoor 
workmen  met  at  civil  works.  Lumbermen,  miners, 
boatmen,  teamsters,  chauffers  and  laborers  are  fair 
examples  of  men  useful  in  the  Engineers.  The  lines 
between  the  two  grades  of  privates  are  not  closely 
drawn,  length  of  service,  special  experience  or  adapt- 
ability often  advancing  a  man  from  one  to  the  other. 

It  is  probable  that  many  engineers  must  serve  in 
the  ranks  as  privates  and  non-commissioned  officers, 
and  there  is  no  disgrace  in  such  service.  The  best 
citizens  of  Europe  are  doing  this  now,  and  there  is  no 


NEEDS  OF  THE  ENGINEER  IN  WAR  201 

reason  why  Americans  should  be  exempt  when  the 
time  comes.  Prof.  Rawson,  in  his  "  Naval  Battles  of 
the  World/'  says  of  the  officers  and  men  aboard  the 
warships,  "All  in  the  service  are  equally  servants  of 
the  state,  and  each  position  is  an  honorable  one, 
the  grades  of  honor  ascending  with  the  degree  of 
responsibility  required."  A  company  commander 
respects  and  relies  upon  an  efficient  and  dependable 
noil- commissioned  officer  as  much  or  more  than  upon 
his  subaltern  officers.  Many  of  the  sergeants  of  the 
IT.  S.  Engineers  have  a  reputation  throughout  the 
Army  for  their  engineering  skill,  and  their  practical 
knowledge  of  the  details  of  the  engineer  soldier's  work 
is  probably  in  excess  of  that  of  many  officers.  It 
means  something  to  be  a  sergeant  in  the  Engineers. 

But  all  cannot  be  privates,  corporals  or  sergeants. 
There  must  be  about  2,000  officers,  and  the  engineers  of 
the  country  must  furnish  them.  There  are  about  248  in 
the  Corps  of  Engineers  of  the  Regular  Army,  and  less 
than  one  hundred  in  the  National  Guard,  probably  less 
than  300  in  all  who  could  be  relied  upon  for  active  field 
duty.  The  field  officers  can  be  supplied  from  the  Reg- 
ular Army,  but  about  480  captains,  960  first  lieuten- 
ants and  360  second  lieutenants  must  be  found  some- 
where, and  from  where  are  they  to  come  ?  From  civil 
life  direct?  Does  any  engineer  reader  who  has  had 
no  military  training  believe  that  he  can  successfully 
lead  engineer  troops  in  the  field?  Men  are  quick  to 
detect  uncertainty  or  hesitation  in  an  officer,  as  a 
horse  recognizes  lack  of  confidence  on  the  part  of  his 
rider,  and  to  lose  faith  in  their  leader  is  the  first  step 
towards  the  complete  disorganization  of  troops. 

General  Morrison,  author  of  " Minor  Tactics"  and 
1 '  Infantry  Training, ' '  says : 

"The  responsibility  resting  upon  an  officer  in  time  of 
war  is  great.  His  mistakes  are  paid  for  in  blood.  To 
seek  a  command  in  war  beyond  his  capabilities  is  no  less 


202  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

criminal  than  for  a  man  with  no  knowledge  of  a  loco- 
motive or  railroading  to  attempt  running  the  engine 
of  a  crowded  express  train  on  a  busy  line. ' ' 

National  Guardsmen  as  Officers  of  Volunteers.  Since 
engineers  have  taken  up  seriously  the  question  of  mili- 
tary preparedness,  the  writer  has  been  approached  by 
a  number  of  technical  men  seeking  information  regard- 
ing service  in  the  Engineers  of  the  National  Guard. 
Some  of  these  desire  to  enter  as  officers,  which  is  of 
course  not  possible  except  to  those  who  have  had  defi- 
nite experience  in  military  engineering ;  most  of  them 
ask, ' '  How  long  will  it  take  to  become  an  officer  If "  To 
this  no  definite  answer  can  be  given,  as  the  time  re- 
quired depends  upon  several  factors :  the  man 's  ability, 
the  existing  vacancies,  and  the  competition  developed. 
In  the  writer's  company,  during  one  year,  three  tech- 
nical men,  with  no  previous  military  experience,  were 
commissioned  second  lieutenants  after  one  year's  ser- 
vice. This  required  extensive  preparation  on  their 
part,  and  more  time  was  spent  in  study  than  at 
regular  drills,  but  any  engineer  who  is  ambitious 
enough  to  work,  and  has  confidence  in  his  ability  to  win 
out  in  competition  with  other  men,  may  do  the  same. 

It  is  realized,  however,  that  with  a  large  technical 
personnel  in  the  Engineers,  well  qualified  men  might 
fail  to  obtain  commissions  through  lack  of  vacancies, 
and  thus  become  somewhat  discouraged  after  a  length 
of  service  which,  in  their  opinion,  should  entitle  them 
to  advancement.  The  answer  is  simple.  If  you  cannot 
hold  commissioned  rank  in  the  National  Guard,  you 
can  insure  that  in  event  of  war  you  will  immediately 
receive  the  rank  for  which  you  are  qualified.  Under 
the  provisions  of  an  Act  of  Congress  of  Jan.  21,  1903, 
any  person  in  the  Army  or  the  National  Guard,  or  with 
previous  experience  in  either,  may  apply  to  the  Divi- 
sion of  Militia  Affairs  of  the  General  Staff  for  an  exam- 
ination in  any  grade  for  which  he  thinks  himself  quali- 


NEEDS  OF  THE  ENGINEER  IN  WAR  203 

fied.  Upon  passing  he  receives  a  certificate  entitling 
him  to  a  commission  in  any  volunteer  force,  outside  the 
Organized  Militia,  which  may  hereafter  be  raised. 

The  National  Guard  can  thus  perform  a  great  ser- 
vice in  fitting  men  for  commissions  in  the  Volunteers. 
A  number  of  Militia  organizations,  as  for  instance  the 
7th  N.  Y.  Infantry,  have  always  furnished  large  num- 
bers of  officers  of  Volunteers  in  past  wars,  and  there  is 
no  reason  why  the  engineers  should  not  do  the  same 
for  their  own  branch  of  the  service.  This  will  require 
additional  work  for  the  officers,  in  holding  schools  for 
the  men  and  instructing  them  in  subjects  in  advance 
of  their  duties  in  the  ranks,  and  will  necessitate  extra 
attendances  for  the  men,  but  such  work  would  be  en- 
tirely voluntary,  and  the  man  can  decide  for  himself 
whether  he  wishes  to  spend  the  time  to  acquire  an  offi- 
cer 's  training. 

The  dream  of  some  National  Guard  officers  is  an  or- 
ganization at  war  strength,  ready  to  take  the  field  in- 
tact, and  were  the  Organized  Militia  sufficient  in  num- 
bers for  all  demands  that  might  be  made,  such  a  situa- 
tion would  indeed  be  ideal.  But  under  the  present 
system  we  must  be  reconciled  to  losing  our  best  trained 
men  to  the  Volunteers,  where  they  wrill  become  officers 
and  non-commissioned  officers.  It  would  be  mani- 
festly unfair,  both  to  these  men  and  to  the  volunteer 
organizations,  to  retain  them  in  the  militia  for  the 
sole  benefit  of  the  latter.  Probably  the  best  trained 
infantry  troops  that  could  be  put  into  the  field  would 
be  the  battalion  of  cadets  at  West  Point,  but  their 
use  as  such  would  be  very  poor  management,  to  let 
many  organizations  suffer  from  a  lack  of  competent 
officers,  in  order  that  one  small  part  of  the  army 
might  be  highly  efficient. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
CONCLUSION. 

In  the  course  of  the  preceding  discussion  the  fol- 
lowing points  have  been  presented : 

First,  that  the  work  of  the  military  engineer  is  of  a 
highly  technical  character,  not  to  be  successfully  prose- 
cuted without  previous  training  and  experience. 

Second,  that  an  officer  must  be  first  a  soldier  and 
after  that  an  engineer.  'With  the  highest  of  profes- 
sional attainments  the  engineer  must  fail  as  an  officer 
if  he  cannot  administer  the  affairs  of  his  command  and 
keep  his  men  in  condition  under  all  circumstances  to 
be  of  effective  use  when  required. 

Third,  that  were  qualified  men  ever  so  numerous  in 
this  country,  the  work  of  enlisting  and  organizing  them 
would  be  absolutely  prohibitive  of  their  early  use  in 
campaigns.  Troops  available  for  prompt  use  in  war 
must  be  organized  before  that  war  begins. 

Fourth,  that  any  action  of  Congress  looking  towards 
a  better  military  preparedness  is  uncertain,  and  will 
require  many  months  to  perfect,  and  whatever  plan  is 
finally  adopted,  it  must  utilize  to  a  large  extent  the  per- 
sonnel of  the  National  Guard  because  of  the  military 
training  which  they  already  have.  Any  man,  there- 
fore, who  strives  to  obtain  a  part  of  this  training  in 
the  meantime  can  feel  that  he  is  not  wasting  his  time, 
and  that  what  he  learns  will  fit  in  with  the  new  plan. 

The  National  Guard  is  not  urged  as  a  cure-all  for  our 
military  disorders.  Its  faults  are  recognized  by  its 
own  members  as  well  as  by  Federal  officers,  and  most 
of  these  are  of  a  sort  that  cannot  be  eradicated  by  any 
effort  upon  their  part.  The  most  severe  critics  of  the 
Guard  admit  that  it  is  composed,  for  the  greater  part, 

204 


CONCLUSION  205 

of  hard- working  officers  and  men,  who  have  very  little 
to  attract  or  hold  them  in  the  service.  There  are  many 
cases,  also,  of  poorly  trained  units,  with  inefficient  offi- 
cers and  indifferent  men.  These  faults  could  be  reme- 
died to  a  large  extent  if  the  proper  sort  of  men  would 
take  up  the  work  and  try  conscientiously  to  improve 
conditions.  The  fact  that  a  city  has  a  rotten  municipal 
government  is  not  so  much  the  fault  of  the  politicians 
in  control  as  of  those  citizens  who  are  qualified  for 
public  office,  but  are  not  willing  to  accept  the  respon- 
sibilities and  inconvenience  attached  to  it,  or  who  will 
not  take  the  trouble  to  cast  their  vote  against  it. 

In  the  Engineers,  particularly,  is  this  lack  of  sup- 
port apparent.  In  New  York  there  has  been  much 
complaint  by  State  and  Federal  authorities  that  the 
Engineers  were  not  up  to  the  professional  standard  of 
the  other  troops.  The  reason  is  simple.  There  are  not 
enough  technical  men  in  the  ranks.  In  teaching  topo- 
graphical sketching  to  a  clerk,  salesman  or  office  man, 
he  must  first  be  taught  the  meaning  of  azimuth,  declin- 
ation, and  how  to  construct  a  scale  of  his  own  paces. 
An  engineer  can  begin  to  learn  where  he  leaves  off.  The 
officers  are  tied  down  to  elementary  instruction  and 
have  no  opportunity  to  rise  above  it.  To  develop e  a 
good  sketcher  from  a  bookkeeper  is  possible,  but  to 
make  him  proficient  as  an  instructor,  to  take  the  ele- 
mentary work  off  the  officers'  hands,  is  seldom  accom- 
plished. 

The  National  Guard  can  be  greatly  improved,  by 
changing  the  system  under  which  it  exists  and  which  is 
responsible  for  most  of  its  troubles,  but  more  particu- 
larly by  the  co-operation  of  the  right  kind  of  men,  and 
by  co-operation  is  meant  active  support,  including  ser- 
vice in  the  ranks.  The  proposed  legislation  may  con- 
tribute largely  to  its  betterment,  or  may  produce  a  bet- 
ter system  altogether,  but  in  the  meantime  the  National 
Guard  is  the  best  we  have  and  all  we  have,  and  to  slight 


200  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

the  Guard  because  of  its  admitted  imperfections  is  to 
neglect  the  best  interests  of  the  country. 

The  writer  does  not  advocate  a  general  enlistment  of 
all  engineers  in  the  Organized  Militia.  Much  can  be 
done  outside  its  ranks.  Employers  can  encourage  en- 
listment on  the  part  of  young  men  in  their  employ  by 
making  this  step  easy  for  them.  Many  a  young  man 
would  be  in  the  Guard  today  but  for  the  fear  that  it 
would  interfere  with  his  professional  advancement. 
Many  men  cannot  arrange  their  time  so  as  to  perform 
military  duty.  Some  of  these  can  attend  the  summer 
training  camps,  some  can  accomplish  much  by  study  in 
preparing  themselves  for  work  in  the  rear  of  the  field 
forces.  But  for  the  man  who  has  the  education,  the 
physique  and  the  energy  to  become  an  officer  of  engin- 
eers, there  ran  be  no  more  patriotic  act  at  the  present 
time  than  enlistment  in  the  National  Guard. 

No  amount  of  talk  for  preparedness  or  resolutions 
favoring  it  can  be  relied  upon  to  add  to  our  forces  one 
capable  soldier,  nor  to  reduce  in  the  slightest  degree 
the  confusion  which  would  rule  the  country  when  war 
became  imminent.  Any  plan  for  preparedness  must 
fail  which  does  not  in  the  end  rest  upon  individual 
effort  and  personal  service. 


THE  END. 


APPENDIX  I. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  reading  upon  military  sub- 
jects recommended  by  the  Chief  of  Engineers,  U.  S. 
Army,  for  the  use  of  civilian  engineers : 

WAR  DEPARTMENT 

O.PFICE  OF  THE  CHIEF  OF  ENGINEERS 

Washington,  November  27,  1915 
Military  Reading  for  Civilian  Engineers. 

By  authority  of  the  Secretary  of  War,  and  in  re- 
sponse to  frequent  requests,  the  following  suggested 
list  of  reading  is  published  for  the  information  of 
civilian  engineers  desiring  to  inform  themselves  on 
military  subjects. 

These  references  have  been  selected,  first,  with  a 
view  to  giving  the  engineers  unfamiliar  with  the  art  of 
war,  a  general  survey  of  that  subject — an  understand- 
ing of  which  is  the  first  essential  to  insure  successful 
application  of  engineering  knowledge  and  resources  to 
military  purposes ;  and,  second,  with  a  view  to  setting 
forth,  as  far  as  practicable,  the  ways  in  which  engineer- 
ing is  applied  to  military  purposes  and  the  means  pro- 
vided therefor. 

Both  military  art  and  military  engineering  are  pro- 
gressive, and  a  considerable  part  of  the  latest  and  most 
detailed  information  published  is  available  only  in 
service  journals  of  our  own  and  foreign  armies.  This 
is  particularly  true  of  technical  details  of  seacoast  de- 
fense (including  submarine  mining),  of  field  artillery, 
of  military  aviation,  and  the  influence  of  these  on  mili- 
tary engineering.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  the 
fundamentals  of  each  subject  are  well  covered  by  the 

207 


208  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE  ENGINEER 

references  given  in  this  list.  While  the  list  is  long,  the 
relative  importance  of  the  various  works  is  indicated, 
and  suitable  comments  on  each  are  included,  so  that 
persons  using  the  lists  of  references  may  be  able  to 
select  those  which  particularly  interest  them. 

The  references  under  each  subject  are  generally  di- 
vided into  two  groups,  the  first  containing  the  more 
essential  references,  and  the  second  those  suitable  for 
persons  desiring  to  inquire  further  into  the  subject. 

Suggestions  looking  to  improvements  of  the  lists  will 
be  gladly  received. 

Note — The  following  abbreviations  are  used : 

Supt.  of  Docs. — Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government 

Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Book  Dept. — Book  Department,    Army    Service    Schools, 

Fort  Leavenworth,  Kans. 

"A"  MILITARY  POLICY,  CONDUCT  OF  WAR,  AND 

MILITARY  HISTORY. 

GROUP   I. 

(1)  Official  Bulletin,  Vol.  I,  No.  2,   Office  of  the  Chief  of 

Staff,  Washington,  D.  C. 

(Especially  pp.  21-39)    Publisher:   Army  War  Col- 
lege, Washington,  D.  C.      Free. 

(An  official  outline  of  the  theory  under  which 
our  forces  are  to  be  organized  and  adminis- 
tered. ) 

(2)  Military  Policy  of  the  United  States— Upton.    May  be 

obtained  from  Supt.  of  Docs. ;  paper,  50  cents ;  cloth, 
65  cents. 

(A  most  valuable  and  comprehensive  review  of  this 
subject.) 

(3)  Field  Service  Regulations,  1914.    May  be  obtained  from 

Supt.  of  Docs. ;    60  cents. 

(A  condensed  official  statement  of  principles,  meth- 
ods and  details  of  military  operations.) 

(4)  Elements  of  Strategy— Fiebeger.    Publisher,  U.  S.  Mili- 

tary Academy,  West  Point,  N.  Y.     May  be  obtained 
from  Book  Dept. ;  75  cents. 

(A  short  outline,  with  historical  illustrations.) 


APPENDIX.  209 

GROUP  II. 

(5)  Conduct  of  War — Von  der  Goltz;  translated  by  J.  Dick- 

man  ;  Hudson  Publishing  Co.,  Kansas  City,  Mo.    May 

be  obtained  from  Book  Dept. ;  $1.70. 

(The  standard  work  on  this  subject,  covering  gen- 
erally the  same  ground  as  (4),  but  more  abstract- 
edly and  elaborately.) 

(6)  On  War — Clausewitz;   translated  by  J.  J.  Graham;  3 

vols. ;  K.  Paul,  Trench,  Trubner  &  Co.,  1908.  May  be 
obtained  from  Book  Dept. ;  $6.60  (including  postage 
and  duty.) 

(The  greatest  classic  on  the  subject;  a  complete 
analysis  of  the  phenomenon  of  war,  and  profound 
discussion  of  the  mechanism  thereof.  Written 
early  in  the  19th  Century,  it  is  still  the  foundation 
of  modern  military  theory.) 

(Qy2)   The  Nation  in   Arms — Von  der   Goltz.     May  be  ob- 
tained from  Book  Dept.;  $2.50. 

(An  excellent  modern  work  on  war;  less  elaborate 
but  more  readable  than  Clausewitz.) 

(7)  American  Campaigns — M.  F.  Steel;  2  vols.;  Publishers: 

Byron   S.  Adams   Publishing  Co.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

May  be  obtained  from  Book  Dept. ;  $4.50. 

(In  addition  to  careful  historical  surveys  of  all  the 
campaigns  from  the  Colonial  Wars  to  the  Spanish- 
American  War,  these  lectures  give  extensive  and 
valuable  comments  as  to  the  military  principles.) 

(8)  A   study  of  Attacks    on    Fortified  Harbors — Rodgers; 

Proceedings  Nos.  Ill,  112  and  113,  U.  S.  Naval  Insti- 
tute, Annapolis,  Md. 

(9)  Lessons  of  the  War  with  Spain — Mahan.     Publishers: 

Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass.  May  be  obtained 
from  Book  Dept;  $2.00. 

( Of  special  importance,  as  showing  the  true  relation 
between  our  coast  defense  and  our  navy). 

(10)  Reports  of  Military  Observers  on  the  Russo-Japanese 

War.     Part  III — J.  E.  Kuhn.    May  be  obtained  from 

Supt.  of  Docs. ;  60  cents. 

( In  addition  to  an  account  of  operations,  this  report 
contains  valuable  information  as  to  fortification 
and  siege  work,  organization  and  equipment. ) 

(11)  Organization  and  Operation  of  the  Lines  of  Communi- 

cations in  War — Furse,  1894.  Publishers  :  Wm.  Clowes 
&  Sons.,  Ltd.,  London. 

(An  old  but  comprehensive  survey  of  this  subject,, 
with  much  historical  information.) 


210  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

"B"  PERMANENT  FORTIFICATIONS. 

GROUP  I. 

( The  references  given  cover  chiefly  the  principles  and 
general  features  of  this  subject ;  the  details  are  mostly 
printed  in  unavailable  form,  either  in  service  journals 
or  in  confidential  documents.  References  to  some  of 
the  former  can  be  furnished,  if  desired.) 

(12)  Report  of  National  Coast  Defense— (Taft)  Board,  1906. 

May  be  obtained  from  Army  War  College,  Washington, 

D.  C.    Free. 

(The  official  project  for  harbor  defenses  of  the 
United  States.  On  account  of  progressive  obsoles- 
cence of  seacoast  defenses,  this  project  has  been 
or  is  being,  modified,  but  still  sets  forth  clearly  the 
fundamentals  of  its  subject.) 

GROUP  II. 

(13)  Lectures  on   Seacoast  Defense — Winslow.      Publishers 

U.   S.  Engineer  School,  Washington  Barracks,  D.  C. 
Price  50  cents. 

(Much  of  these  lectures  relates  to  technical  details, 
and  a  considerable  part  is  now  obsolete.) 

(14)  Permanent  Fortifications— Fieberger,  1900;  U.  S.  Mili- 

tary Academy,  West  Point,  N.  Y. ;  $1.00.    May  be  ob- 
tained from  Book  Dept. 

(While  rather  old,  this  work  gives  a  simple  presen- 
tation of  the  fundamentals  on  its  subject,  includ- 
ing an  historical  outline.  A  revised  edition  will 
soon  be  published.) 

(15)  Fortifications— C.  S.  Clarke;  Dutton  &  Co.,  New  York; 

$4.50.    May  be  obtained  from  Book  Dept. 
(A  treatise  on  the  same  lines  as  (14) ). 

(16)  Principles   of   Land    Defense — Thuillier,    1902;    Long- 

mans,   Green   &   Co.     May   be   obtained   from   Book 
Dept;  $3.83. 

(A  very  valuable  work,  covering  the  principles  of 
both  field  and  permanent  fortification.) 

•"C"  ORGANIZATION,  EQUIPMENT  AND  DUTIES 
OF  ENGINEER  TROOPS. 

GROUP  I. 

'(17)  Field  Service  Regulations,  1914.    (See  "A"  3.) 
,(18)  Tables  of  Organization,  1914.     May  be  obtained  from 
Supt.  of  Docs. ;  25  cents. 

(These  tables  represent — subject  to  modification  and 


APPENDIX.  211 

within  the  limits  of  existing  law— the  approved 
policy  of  the  War  Department  with  regard  to  or- 
ganization. ) 

(19)  Official  Bulletin,  Office  of  the  Chief  of  Staff,  vol.  I,  No. 

4  (Appendix  4).    Use  of  Engineer  Troops.    Publisher: 
Army  War  College,  Washington,  D.  C.    Free. 

(An  official  statement  of  the  principles  which  should 
govern  in  the  use  of  engineers,  with  practical  sug- 
gestions. ) 

(20)  Duties  of  Engineer  Troops  in  a  General  Engagement 

of  a  Mixed  Force — Burgess.     Publishers:  IT.   S.  En- 
gineer School,  Washington  Barracks,  D.  C. ;  25  cents. 
(Obsolete  in  some  respects,  particularly  organiza- 
tion, but  excellent  in  general  scope.) 

(21)  General  Orders  No.  6,  War  Department,  1915.    May  be 

obtained   from   The   Adjutant   General,   U.    S.   Army, 
Washington,  D.  C.     Free. 

(Prescribes  the  training  of  Engineer  troops.) 

GROUP  II. 

(22)  Studies  in  Minor  Tactics — Army  Service  Schools,  1915. 

May  be  obtained  from  Book  Dept. ;  50  cents. 

(The  principles  of  Minor  Tactics  are  set  forth  by 
solution  of  a  series  of  problems.) 

(23)  Technique  of  Modern  Tactics — Bond     &     McDonough, 

1914;  Banta  Publishing  Co.,  Manasha,  Wis.     May  be 

obtained  from  Book  Dept. ;  $2.55. 

(This  work  covers,  in  a  very  specific  way,  the  prin- 
ciples of  tactics  for  all  arms,  a  general  knowledge 
of  which  is  essential  for  engineers. ) 

(24)  Operation  Orders — Von  Kiesling;  translation.    May  be 

obtained  from  Book  Dept. ;  50  cents. 

(A  lucid  exposition,  by  use  of  assumed  cases,  of 
the  operation  of  highly  trained  troops  of  all  arms 
in  various  phases  of  battle.) 

(25)  Engineer  Unit  Accountability  Manual.    May  be  obtained 

from  Supt.  of  Docs. ;  5  cents. 

(Official  lists  of  standard  equipment  supplied  to  En- 
gineer battalions  and  companies.) 

(26)  Organization  of  the  Bridge  Equipage  of  the  U.  S.  Army, 

1915  (Revised  edition  just  going  to  press.) 

(Includes  description  of  equipage  and  regulations 
for  ponton  drill.) 


212  PREPAREDNESS   AND    THE    ENGINEER 

(27)  Officers'  Manual — Moss;  Banta  Publishing  Co.,  Mena- 

sha,  Wis. ;  $2.50.    May  be  obtained  from  Book  Dept. 
(Treats  of  routine  duties  of  officers,  customs  of  the 
service,  army  organization,  etc.) 

(28)  Manual  for  Courts  Martial.  May  be  obtained  from  Supt. 

of  Docs. ;  50  cents. 

"D"  FIELD  ENGINEERING. 

(Military  field  engineering  at  the  front  differs  from 
ordinary  engineering  work  in  the  field,  in  being  gener- 
ally simpler,  of  a  rough-and-ready  character,  and  espec- 
ially because  of  the  limited  equipment  which  can  be 
taken  along  with  the  advance  of  an  army,  and  because 
of  the  necessity  of  working  in  strict  subordination  to 
the  military  situation.  In  rear  of  the  army,  on  the  con- 
trary, conditions  are  very  similar  to  those  governing 
ordinary  engineering  operations,  and  civilian  organiza- 
tion is  suitable,  subject  to  directions  by  the  higher  mili- 
tary staff.  Little  attempt  is  made  in  works  on  military 
field  engineering  to  treat  of  general  engineering 
methods.) 

(29)  Field  Fortifications— Fiebeger,    1913;    John    Wiley    & 

Sous,  New  York.     May  be  obtained  from  Book  Dept. ; 
$1.90. 

(In  addition  to  technical  details,  this  work  gives 
valuable  historical  illustrations  of  the  principles 
of  this  subject.) 

(30)  Field     Entrenchments,     Spade    work    for    Riflemen — 

John  Murray,  London.     May  be  obtained  from  Book 
Dept. ;  40  cents. 

( A  very  up-to-date  little  work,  especially  on  details. ) 

(31)  Notes   on    Field    Fortification — Army    Field    Engineer 

School.    May  be  obtained  from  Book  Dept. ;  30  cents. 

(32)  Engineer   Field   Manual — Professional   Papers   No.   29, 

Corps  of  Engineers,  U.  S.  Army,  3d  edition,  1909,  500 
pages.  May  be  obtained  from  Supt.  of  Docs.,  $1.00. 
(A  very  complete  official  pocketbook  for  Engineer 
officers  in  the  field,  containing  much  tabular  and 
technical  data,  as  well  as  brief  outlines  of  prin- 
ciples and  methods.  The  subjects  covered  are : 
Part  I,  Reconnaissance ;  Part  II,  Bridges ;  Part 
III,  Roads;  Part  IV,  Railroads;  Part  V,  Field 
Fortification,  and  Part  VI,  Animal  Transportation. 
A  new  revision  of  the  manual  is  contemplated,  but 
will  not  be  ready  within  a  year.  The  portion  of 
the  manual  relating  to  Field  Fortifications,  being 


APPENDIX.  213 

somewhat  obsolete,  should  be  considered  in  connec- 
tion with  either  (30)  and  (31)  above.  The  portion 
relating  to  Railroads  is  largely  superseded  by  (35) 
below. ) 

(33)  Notes  on  Bridges  and  Bridging — 'Spalding.    May  be  ob- 

tained from  Book  Dept. 

(A  small  pamphlet  on  military  bridging.) 

(34)  Military   Topography  for  Mobile  Forces— Sherrill,   2d 

edition;   Banta   Publishing  Co.,  Menasha,  Wis,  1911. 

May  be  obtained  from  Book  Dept. ;  $2.25. 

(Besides  matter  given  in  ordinary  text-books  on 
surveying,  this  work  gives  in  detail  the  special 
methods  of  sketching  developed  in  the  army  for 
rapid  military  mapping.) 

(35)  Military  Railroads — Connor ;   Professional  Papers  No. 

32,  Corps  of  Engineers,  IT.  S.  Army.     Supt.  of  Docs. ; 

50  cents. 

(Intended  to  cover  general  administration  of  exist- 
ing railroads  for  military  purposes  and  the  hand- 
ling of  railroads  by  military  personnel  in  the 
advanced  sections  where  railroads  can  not  be  oper- 
ated by  their  regular  civilian  organizations,  or 
where  new  railroads  are  required  in  the  immed- 
iate vicinity  of  the  Army.  Revised  edition  soon 
to  appear.) 

(36)  Notes   on    Military   Explosives — Weaver;    J.   Wiley   & 

Sons,  New  York:  1912.     May  be  obtained  from  Book 

Dept. ;  $2.20. 

(Elementary  notes  on  this  subject  will  be  found  in 
the  Engineer  Field  Manual  and  other  references 
cited.  The  work  is  more  elaborate.) 

"E"  MISCELLANEOUS. 

(37)  Regulations  for  the  Army  of  the  United  States;  Supt. 

of  Docs. ;  50  cents. 

(38)  The  "Volunteer  Law,<?  approved  April  25,  1914;  Bulle- 

tin No.  17,  War  Department,  1914.  May  be  obtained 
from  The  Adjutant  General,  U.  S.  Army,  Washington, 
D.  C.  Free. 

1,39)  General  Orders  No.  54,  War  Department,  1914.  May 
be  obtained  from  The  Adjutant  General,  U.  S.  Army, 
Washington,  D.  C.  Free. 

(Covers  examination  of  candidates  for  commissions 
as  officers  of  volunteers.) 


214  PREPAREDNESS   AND    THE   ENGINEER 

(40)  General  Orders  Xo.  50,  War  Department,  1915.    May  be 

obtained   from   The   Adjutant  General,   U.    S.   Army, 

Washington,  D.  C.     Free. 

(Amends  General  Orders  54,  1914,  as  to  examination 
of  candidates  for  commissions  in  volunteer  engi- 
neers. ) 

(41)  Treatise  on  Military  Law— Davis ;  J.  Wiley  £  Sons,  New 

York.    May  be  obtained  from  Book  Dept. ;  $5.30. 

(42)  Elements  of  Military  Hygiene — Ashburne;  new  edition; 

Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  Boston,  1915.  May  be  ob- 
tained from  Book  Dept. ;  $1.30. 

"F"  PERIODICALS. 

(43)  Professional  Memoirs,   Corps   of  Engineers,  U.    S.  A., 

and,  Engineer  Department  at  Large;  Bi-monthly  (for- 
merly quarterly)  ;  Washington  Barracks,  D.  C.,  Engi- 
neer Press;  per  year,  $3.00. 

(44)  The   Royal  Engineers'   Journal — Royal  Engineers'   In- 

stitute, Chatham,  England:  Monthly;  per  year,  $4.00. 
(American  agents,  E.  Steiger  &  Co.,  49  Murray  St., 
New  York) . 

(45)  Journal  of  the  Military  Service  Institution,  Governors 

Island,  Xew  York.  Bi-monthly ;  published  by  the  In- 
stitution; per  year,  $3.00. 

(46)  Journal  of  the   United   States  Artillery;   Bi-monthly; 

Fort  Monroe,  Ya. ;  Coast  Artillery  School  press ;  per 
year,  $2.75,  including  Index  to  Current  Literature; 
without  Index,  $2.50. 

(47)  Journal  of  the  United  States  Cavalry  Association;  pub- 

lished by  the  Association  at  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kans. ; 
per  year  $2.50. 

(48)  Infantry  Journal;  Bi-monthly;  published  by  the  U.  S. 

Infantry  Association,  Union  Trust  Building,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. ;  per  year  $3.00. 

(49)  Field  Artillery  Journal;   quarterly;  published  by  the 

U.  S.  Field  Artillery  Association,  601  Star  Building, 
Washington,  D.  C. ;  per  year  $3.00. 


APPENDIX  II. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  engineer  property  carried  by 
each  engineer  company  in  the  field.  This  is  in  addition  to 
all  camp  and  personal  equipment,  ordnance  and  quarter- 
master property,  etc. 

COMPANY  ENGINEER  PROPERTY. 

EQUIPMENT. 

Articles  Number.     Unit  price. 

Carpenter's  equipment  i1 

Augers,  ship,  handled,  sets  of  3 2  $3.02 

Awls,  scratch  2  .14 

Axes,  handled,  32-inch 2  .72 

Bits- 
Auger,  sets  of  7 2  3.19 

Expansion 2  1.60 

Screw-driver 4  .13 

Braces,  ratchet 2  2.25 

Chests,  carpenter's 2  3.00 

Chisels- 
Cold  2  .38 

Framing,  handled,  sets  of  3 2  2.75 

Dividers,  wing 2  .47 

Drawknives 2  1.70 

Files,  saw,  taper 12  .17 

Hammers,  claw  2  .45 

Handles — 

Ax,  32-inch  2  .15 

Chisel,  framing,  6-inch  2  .10 

Hammer,  claw 2  .10 

Hatchets    10  .63 

Levels,  carpenter's,  24-inch 2  2.63 

Mallets,  carpenter's   2  .25 

Oilers,  %  pint   2  .41 

Oilstones    2  .94 

Planes,  jack  2  .86 

Pliers,   side-cutting    2  .72 

Plumb  bobs,  6-ounce 2  .54 

Rules,  2-foot,  4-fold  8  .26 

1  One-half  to  each  company  tool  wagon. 
215 


216 


PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 


Saws —  Articles  Number.     Unit  price. 

Compass    2  1.00 

Crosscut,  hand 4  1.80 

Rip,  hand    2  1.30 

Saw  sets   2  1.10 

Screw-drivers    2  .25 

Squares — 

Steel,  carpenter's  2  1.20 

Try    2  .25 

Tapes,  metallic,  50-foot   2  2.30 

T  bevels 2  .25 

Wrenches,  monkey,  12-inch  2  .72 

Demolition  equipment:1 
Augers — 

Earth,  handled   2  5.25 

Ship,  li^-inch,  handled 2  1.32 

Bars — 

Pinch,  large   2  .80 

Wood,  tamping   2  .25 

Boxes — 

Cap    2  2.00 

Match  2  .25 

Chisels,  cold  2  .38 

Circuit  detectors   2  5.00 

Crimpers    2  .50 

Drills— 

Single-bit,  long    2  1.53 

Single-bit,   short    2  .60 

Hammers,  sledge,  8-pound 4  .80 

Magneto  exploders  2  14.85 

Pick    mattocks,    E.    D.    pattern,    "In- 
trenching," handled   4  .48 

Shovels,  E.  D.  pattern,  "Intrenching".  8  .55 

Reels,  wire,  firing 2  1.50 

Spoons,   miner's,   long 2  1.00 

Wire,  firing,  double  lead  No.  14.  .feet.  .2000  .01 
Drafting  Equipment:1 

Boards,  drawing,  23  by  31  inch,  with 

trestles  2  3.15 

Erasers,  steel    2  .80 

Erasing  Shields 2  .12 

Instruments,  drawing,  field  sets 2  14.00 

Lamps,   acetylene   2  24.00 

Map  measures   2  2.20 

Protractors,  G.  S.,  semicircular,  6-inch  2  2.15 

1  One-half  to  each  company  tool  wagon. 


COMPANY    ENGINEER    PROPERTY 


217 


Scales —  Articles  Number.     Unit  price. 

Architect's,  12-inch,  with  sheaths.  2  1.50 

Engineer's,  12-inch,  with  sheaths.  2  1.50 
Triangles — 

30-60°,  10-inch   2  .80 

45°,   8-inch    2  .80 

T  squares,  24-inch    2  6.23 

Tubes,  tin    6  1.10 

Hectograph  equipment:1 

Hectographs,  clay,  20  by  24  inch 2  13.25 

Levelers,  hectograph   2  .25 

Sponges    2  .25 

Miscellaneous  equipment  :a 
Bags — 

Nail,  50-pound  4  .75 

Nail,  100  pound 2  1.00 

Buckets,  galvanized  iron 6  .42 

Cans,  galvanized  iron,  5-gallon 2  5.50 

Carborundum  wheels    2  5.50 

Handles — 

Auger,   ship    2  .15 

Hammer,  sledge,  8-pound  2  .20 

Hatchet,  16-inch   6  .15 

Pick  mattock,  E.  D.  pattern,  "In- 
trenching"      12  .15 

Lanterns — 

Dark    6  1.00 

Dietz     12  2.50 

Manuals — 

Engineer  field 24  1.00 

Ponton    2  1.00 

Marlinspikes    2  .12 

Padlocks,  brass  12  .85 

Stamps,  steel,  sets   2  7.70 

Stencils,  sets    2  .70 

Wagons,  tool,  company 2  300.00 

Photographic  equipment  :2 

Blankets,  rubber  2  2.00 

Bucket,  canvas   2  1.50 

Bulbs,  rubber  1  .25 

Cameras,    3-A    Kodak,    complete    with 

cases    1  21.95 

Exposure   meters    1  2.00 

Film  tanks,   Kodak,  3^-inch 1  3.75 

1  One-half  to  each  company  tool  wagon. 

2  All  in  one  company   tool  wagon. 


218  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE  ENGINEER 

Articles  Number.     Unit  price. 

Graduates,  8-ounce 1  .40 

Lamps,   ruby    1  '77 

Manuals,  photographer's  1  .50 

Printing  frames,  5  by  7  inches 2  .45 

Rods,  stirring,  hard  rubber 2  .15 

Shears,  8-inch   1  .90 

Thermometers,  photographic 1  .40 

Towels,  bath    4  .22 

Trays,  agate,  nested,  sets  of  4 4  3.15 

Tripods,  metal,  folding 1  1.95 

Pioneer  equipment:1 

Adzes,   handled.  32-inch 4  1.35 

Axes,  handled,  36-inch 26  .72 

Bars,  pinch,  large 2  .80 

Blades,  hacksaw,  dozens 1  .40 

Blocks— 

8-inch,   double    2  3.22 

8-inch,    single    2  2.06 

8-inch,   snatch    2  5.25 

8-inch,  triple     2  5.66 

Climbers,  lineman's,  pairs 2  3.38 

Comealongs 4  1.38 

Files,  crosscut  saw   6  .22 

Hammers,  sledge,  8-pound   4  .80 

Handles — 

Adz,  32-inch   2  .15 

Ax,  36-inch    6  .15 

Pick,  railroad,  36-inch   2  .15 

Saw,  crosscut,  1-man 2  .10 

Saw,  crosscut,  2-man 2  .10 

Hatchets 6  .63 

Knives,  Gabion   18  .85 

Machetes,  with  sheaths 36  1.60 

Mauls,  wood 4  1.50 

Peevies,  handled  4  1.70 

Picks,  railroad,  handled  6  .55 

Pick  mattocks — 

E.      D.      pattern.      "Intrenching," 

handled    30  .48 

Large,  handled  6  .60 

Pliers,  side-cutting 24  .72 

Points,  pike  and  hook  4  1.12 

Posthole  diggers   2  2.00 

1  One-half  to  each  company  tool  wagon. 


COMPANY    ENGINEER    PROPERTY 


219 


Articles  Number.     Unit  price. 

Rope,  'inanila,    1    inch    diameter,    250- 
foot  coils 2  8.25 

Saws — 

Crosscut,   1-man    2  1.13 

Crosscut,  2-man 4  1.38 

Hack    2  .50 

Saw  tools  2  1.10 

Shovels — 

E.  D.  pattern,  "Intrenching" 60  .55 

Long-handled    12  .75 

Tapes,  metallic,  50-foot 4  2.30 

Wedges,  steel,  5-pound   4  1.30 

Wrenches — 

Monkey,    18-inch 2  1.50 

Stillson,    18-inch 2  3.00 

Reconnaissance  equipment  i1 

Alidades 6  1.25 

Barometers,  aneriod,  with  cases 4  20.00 

Boards,  sketching 6  7.55 

Chests,  sketching  outfit 6  6.60 

Clinometers,  service,  with  cases 14  8.90 

Compasses — 

Box   4  2.65 

Prismatic,  with  cases   4  9.55 

Watch    12  1.55 

Field  glasses,  with  cases 2  19.00 

Holders,  timing  pad 6  1.50 

Odometers,  with  cases 2  10.50 

Pace  tallies 14  3.25 

Pencil  pockets 6  2.20 

Protractors,  rectangular  8  1.32 

Sextants,  pocket 2  36.00 

Tripods,  wood,  folding 6  4.25 

Pack  No.  1:  Equipment: 

Augers,  ship,  7/16  inch,  handled 2  .80 

AwJs,  stitching    1  .07 

Bags,  nail,  10-pound 2  .25 

Bars,  pinch,  small 1  .30 

Bits- 
Auger,  sets  of  7 1  3.19 

Screw  driver 1  .13 

Bags,    carpenter    1  .25 

Boxes,  pack  No.  1 2  6.00 

1  One-half  to  each  company  tool  wagon. 


220  PREPAREDNESS   AND    THE   ENGINEER 

Articles                                    Number.  Unit  price. 

Braces,  ratchet 1  2.25 

Chisels,  framing,  sets  of  3 1  2.75 

Files,  flat,  bastard,  12-inch 1  .16 

Hammers — 

Claw   2  .45 

Farrier's    1  .43 

Sledge,  8-pound  1  .80 

Hatchets    4  .63 

Knife,  shoeing  1  .33 

Nippers,  shoeing  1  .82 

Pincers,  shoeing   1  .77 

Pliers,  side-cutting 2  .72 

Punch,  revolving 1  1.32 

Rasp,   shoeing,   16-inch 1  .32 

Rivet  set  1  .45 

Rolls,  canvas,  for  tools 3  1.00 

Saws,  crosscut,  hand,  20-inch 2  1.25 

Squares,  steel,  carpenter's 1  1.20 

Tapes,  metallic,  50-foot 1  2.30 

Wrenches,  monkey,  12-inch 1  .72 

Packs  Nos.  2  and  3 :  Equipment  :* 

Augers,  ship,  1^-inch,  handled 2  1.32 

Bars,  pinch,  small 2  .30 

Boxes — 

Cap    4  2.00 

Match  4  .25 

Packs  Nos.  2  and  3 4  6.00 

Buckets,  canvas  2  1.50 

Chisels,  cold  2  .38 

Crimpers    4  .50 

Drills,  single-bit,  short 2  .60 

Hammers,  sledge,  8-pound 2  .80 

Knives,  clasp  4  .75 

Pick  mattocks,  E.  D.  pattern,  "Mining," 

handled    2  .55 

Pliers,  side-cutting 4  .72 

Rolls,  canvas,  for  tools 4  1.00 

Shovels,  E.  D.  pattern,  "Mining" 2  .55 

Spoons,  miners',  short 2  1.00 

Pack  No.  4 :  Equipment : 

Axes,  handled,  36-inch 6  .72 

Boxes,  pack,   No.  4 2  6.00 

1  Packs  Nos.  2  and  3  are  identical. 


COMPANY    ENGINEER    PROPERTY  221 

Articles  Number.     Unit  price. 

Pick  mattocks,  E.  D.  pattern,  "Mining," 

handled 10  .55 

Shovels,  E.  D.  pattern,  "Mining" 20  .55 

Pack  No.  5 :  Equipment : 

Blocks— 

6-inch,  double    2  1.50 

6-inch,  single     2  .83 

6-inch,  snatch    2  3.50 

Boxes,  Pack  No.  5 2  6.00 

Hatchets    2  .63 

Machetes,  with  sheaths 10  1.60 

Rope,    manila,    94-inch    diameter,    200- 
foot  coils  2  4.08 

Saws — 

Folding,  with  cases 2  5.00 

Crosscut,  hand,  20-inch 2  1.25 

NOTE. 

If  the  company  is  not  provided  with  pack  animals,  the  fact 
will  be  stated  on  the  engineer  return  and  the  above  equip- 
ment will  be  modified  as  follows : 

Omit. 
Equipment — Packs  Nos.  1-5. 

SUPPLIES    KEPT    ON    HAND.1 

Carpenter's  supplies  :2 

Chalk,   carpenters,   pound y2  $0.20 

Chalk  lines,  40-foot 4  .08 

Pencils,  carpenter's,  dozen 1  .42 

Demolition  supplies  :2 

Caps,  detonating  100  .01^ 

Explosive,  pounds 200  .60 

Fuse — 

Bickford.  feet 200  .00^ 

Instantaneous,  feet 200  .04 y2 

Fuses,  electric   200  .04 

Matches,  safety,  boxes,  dozen 1  .05 

Tape,  insulating,  rolls 2  1.00 

Twine,  hemp,  2-ounce  balls 2  .08 


1  The  quantities  of  supplies  indicated  will  be  kept  on  hand  at 
all  times  as  far  as  possible,  except  those  marked  (*),  which,  being 
subject  to  deterioration  in  store,  will  ordinarily  be  kept  on  hand 
in  quantities  sufficient  for  immediate  needs  only,  being  increased 
to  the  full  amounts  prescribed  when  field  service  is  anticipated. 
Supplies  expended  will  be  replaced  by  requisition  as  soon  as 
possible. 
2  One-half  to  each  company  tool  wagon. 


222  PREPAREDNESS  AND   THE   ENGINEER 

Articles  Number.     Unit  price. 

Drafting  supplies:1 

Books,  note 6  .20 

Carbide,  in  10-pound  cans,  pounds 40  .11 

Cloth,  tracing,  30-inch,  24-yard  rolls. . .  2  7.00 
Erasers — 

Rubber,  pencil  4  .06 

Rubber,  ink 2  .05 

Ink- 
Drawing,  black,  bottles 4  .19 

Drawing,  blue,  bottles 2  .19 

Drawing,  carmine,  bottles 2  .19 

India,  sticks  2  .60 

Pads— 

Pencil-pointing,  1*4  by  4  inches. ..  2  .08 

Scratch,  6  by  9  inches 4  .07 

Paper — 

Blotting,  3%  by  9y2  inches,  dozen.  2  .20 

Drawing,  22  by  30  inches,  gross "2  6.66 

Pencils — 

Drawing,  H 12  .08 

Drawing,  3H  12  .08 

Pens — 

Crow-quill,  dozen,  with  holder,  cards  2  .32 

Mapping,  dozen,  with  holder,  cards  2  .32 

Pins,  cones  2  .08 

Tacks,  thumb,  dozen 2  .36 

Tape,  adhesive,  rolls 4  .02 

Twine,  hemp,  2-ounce  balls 2  .08 

Hectograph  supplies:1 
Ink- 
Green,  hectograph,  bottles 2  .17 

Red,  hectograph,  bottles 2  .17 

Violet,  hectograph,  bottles 4  .17 

Paper,  book,  19  by  24  inches,  quires 10  .27 

Miscellaneous  supplies  i1 

Canvas,  10-ounce,  yards 20  .40 

Grease,  axle,  pounds   10  .15 

Marline,  pounds 36  .15 

Nails — 

60d,  wire  spike,  pounds  200  .02% 

30d,  wire  spike,  pounds 100  .02% 

16d,  wire,  pounds  100  .02% 


1  One-half  to  each  company  tool  wagon. 


COMPANY    ENGINEER   PROPERTY  223 

Oil- 

Coal,  gallons  ....................  10  .12 

Machine,  quarts  .................  2  .10 

Staples,  pounds   .....................  20  .05 

Screws,  assorted,  gross  ..............  6  .30 

Wicks- 

Lantern,  dark,  dozen  ............  1  .18 

Lantern,  Dietz,  dozen  ............  2  .18 

Wire,  B.  &  S.  No.  16,  pounds  ..........  50  .04 

Photographic  supplies  :2 

Albums,  film  negative,  S1^  by  5y2  inches  1  .77 

Books,  photographic,  note  ............  1  .40 

Cheesecloth,    white,    yards  ..........  3  .05 

Developer  — 

Ideal,  M.  Q.,  boxes  ...............  8  .44 

Pyro,  tank,  boxes  ................  8  .35 

*Films,  Kodak,  3%  by  5%  inches,  rolls 

of  6  exposures  ....................  24  .31 

Formaline,  pounds   ......  ............  1  .30 

Hypo  acid,  Kodak,  in  ^4  -pound  boxes, 

pounds  ............................  12  .32 

Intensifier,  tubes  ....................  1  .16 

*  Paper,  developing,  4  by  6  inches,  gross      1  1.35 

*  Paper,  printing  out,  3%  by  5y2  inches, 

gross  ..............................  1  1.50 

Photo  clips,  dozen  ...................  1  .20 

Potassium  bicarbonate,  pounds  .......  1  .20 

Potassium  bromide,  tabloid,  tubes  .....  1  .08 

Push  pins,  dozen  ....................  1  .08 

Reducer,  tubes  ......................  1  .22 

Refills,  for  exposure  meter,  packages  1  .22 

Twine,  hemp,  2-ounce  balls  ...........  1  .08 

Wicks,  ruby  lantern,  dozen  ...........  y2  .35 

Pioneer  supplies:1 
Bolts- 

Drift,  %-inch  ...................  80  .03 

Drift,  i/2-inch  ...................  80  .03 

Rope  — 

Manila,    %-inch   diameter,    50-foot 

lashings   ......................  24  1.00 

Manila,    14  -inch   diameter,   18-foot 

lashings   ......................  50  .18 

Sandbags,  with  binders  ..............  500  .10 

Tape,  tracing,  feet  ...................  3000  .00^ 


1  One-half  to  each  company  tool  wagon. 

2  All  in  one  company  tool  wagon. 


224  PREPAREDNESS   AND   THE   ENGINEER 

Articles  Number.     Unit  price. 

Reconnaissance  supplies  i1 

Books,  note,  field 32  .20 

Celluloid,  sheets  72  .10 

Erasers,  rubber,  pencil   28  .06 

Pads,  timing 36  .20 

Paper,  sketching,  sheets,  gross 3  3.00 

Pencils — 

Blue    28  .08 

Drawing,  H 84  .08 

Green    28  .08 

Red   28  .08 

Protectors,  pencil-point 28  .05 

Tape,  adhesive,  rolls 12  .02 

Pack  No.  1,  Supplies: 

Beeswax,  ounces 2  .02 

Bolts,  drift,  ^-inch 40  .03 

Chalk,  carpenter's,  pounds %  .20 

Chalk  lines,  40-foot 2  .08 

Nails— 

60d,  wire  spike,  pounds 10  .02% 

16d,  wire,  pounds  10  .02% 

Horseshoe,  pounds   3  .08 

Needles,  harness,  papers 2  .06 

Pencils,  carpenter's,  dozen y2  .42 

Rivets,  harness,  assorted,  pounds 1  .40 

Shoes,  mule,  fitted 6  .12 

Thread,  harness,  2-ounce  balls 1  .11 

Packs  Nos.  2  and  3,  Supplies  :2 

Caps,  detonating  200  .Oly2 

Cord,  detonating,  spools 8  2.92 

Explosive,  pounds 180  .82 

Fuse,  Bickford,  feet 400  .00% 

Fuse  lighters,  Bickford  120  .02 

Matches,  safety,  boxes,  dozen   '2  .05 

Rope,  manila,  i^-inch  diameter,  18-foot 

lashings 4  .18 

Twine,  hemp,  2-ounce  ball    2  .08 

Unions,  detonating  cord 48  .02 

Wire,  copper,  No.  30,  14 -pound  spools. .  4  .37 


1  One-half  to  each  company  tool  wagon. 

2  Packs  Nos.  2  and  3  are  identical. 


Structural  Work,  Complete  Set  at  $12.00 
" Graphic  Statics" 

By  CHARLES  W.  MALCOLM. 

For  the  man  who  needs  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  ground- 
work of  structural  design,  whether  college  student,  draughtsman, 
or  field  man,  this  book  presents  that  knowledge  in  such  form  as 
to  be  readily  assimilated. 

Cloth,  6x9,  330  pages,  155  drawings,  $3.00 


"Structural  Engineering" 

By    J.    E.    KIRKHAM. 

Covers   the   entire   field   as   follows: 

I,  Preliminary  ;  II,  Structural  Drafting ;  III,  Fundamental  Ele- 
ments ;  IV,  Theoretical  Treatment  of  Beams  ;  V,  Theoretical  Treat- 
incut  of  Columns;  VI,  Rivets,  Pins,  Rollers  and  Shafting;  VII, 
Maximum  Reactions*;  VIII,  Graphic  Statics;  IX,  Influence  Lines: 
X,  Descriptions  of  I-Beams  and  Plate  Girders;  XI,  Design  of 
Simple  Railway  Bridges  ;  XII,  Design  of  Simple  Highway  Bridges  ; 
XIII,  Skew  Bridges;  XIV,  Design  of  Buildings. 

Cloth,  6x9,  675  pages,  452  illustrations,  $5.00 

The  American  City:  "A  self  explanatory  manual  of  structural 
engineering  for  practical  men." 

"Steel  Bridge  Designing" 

By   M.    B.    WELLS. 

Standard  draughting  room  practice  illustrated  by  the  design  of 
a  riveted  truss  highway  bridge,  a  through  plate  girder  railroad 
bridge,  a  riveted  truss  railroad  bridge,  a  pin  connected  railroad 
bridge,  and  a  riveted  angle  roof  truss.  The  formulas  used  in 
designing  are  derived  in  a  separate  chapter  on  strength  of  ma- 
terials and  cross  referenced  with  their  application  in  other 
chapters. 

Cloth,  6x9,  250  pages,  47  illustrations,  27  folding  plates,  $2.50 

The  American  Architect:  "A  large  number  of  shop  and  general 
drawings  representing  American  practice  in  bridge  designing,  havo 
been  reproduced  for  this  volume  and  so  arranged  that  they  may 
be  readily  referred  to. 

"Mill  Buildings,"  Design  and  Construction 

By    HENRY    G.    TYRRELL. 

The  economics,  as  well  as  the  mathematics,  of  the  design  of 
industrial  plants,  as  indicated  belo\v  :  Chapters  1  to  9,  Theory 
of  Economic  Design;  10  to  13,  Loads;  14  to  17,  Framing;  18 
to  38,  Details  of  Construction  ;  39  to  47,  Engineering  and  draught- 
ing departments  of  Structural  Works. 

Cloth,   6x9,   490  pages,  652  illustrations,   $4.00 
Scientific   American:     "A   volume  of  the  most  helpful   and  prac- 
tical Information  on  the  location  and  design  of  industrial  plants." 
Vmjun'criitfi    Jfccorrt:   "The  volume  will   prove   a  welcome  one   to 
'     ngineers    in    designing   offices." 


"Rock  Excavation,  Methods  and  Cost" 

New  Edition 

By   HALBERT   P.    GILLETTE. 
$5.00. 

The  various  operations  of  drilling,  blasting,  breaking,  transpor- 
tation, crushing,  etc.,  treated  in  great  detail. 

"How  to  do  it,"  and  "What  it  ought  to  cost,"  are  answered 
here  as  in  no  other  book  published.  Chapters  are :  Rocks  and 
their  properties,  Methods  and  Costs  of  Hand  Drilling,  Drill  Bits, 
shape,  sharpening  and  tempering;  Machine  Drills  and  Their  Use, 
Power  Plants,  Cost  of  Machine  Drilling,  Well  Drills  and  Augers, 
Core  Drills,  Explosives,  Charging  and  Firing,  Methods  of  Blasting, 
Loading  and  Transporting,  Quarrying  Stone  for  Masonry,  Open 
Cut  Excavation,  Railroad  Work,  Canal  Excavation,  Subaqueous 
Excavation,  Definitions. 

"Earthwork  and  Its  Cost" 

By   HALBKKT  1*.  GILLKTTE. 

A  parallel,  in  earthwork,  to  "Rock  Excavation,"  as  indicated 
by  chapters  as  follows  :  Introduction,  Earth  Shrinkage,  Cost  of 
Loosening  and  Shoveling,  Dumping,  Spreading,  -Rolling,  Cost  of 
Wheelbarrows  and  Carts,  Cost  by  Wagons.  Cost  by  Buck  and  Drag- 
Scrapers,  Cost  by  Wheel  Scrapers,  Cost  by  Elevating  Grader,  by 
Steam  Shovels,  by  Cars,  How  to  Handle  a  Steam  Shovel  Plant, 
Summary  and  Table  of  Costs,  Cost  of  Trenching  and  Pipe  Laying, 
of  Hydraulic  Excavation,  of  Dredging,  Miscellaneous  Cost  Data, 
Earth  and  Karth  Structures,  Rapid  Eield  and  Office  Survey  Work, 
Overhaul  Calculation,  A  Small  Home-Made  Dipper  Dredge  or 
Steam  Shovel,  "Ditching  and  Trenching  Machinery,  by  E.  E.  R. 
Tratman. 

Cloth,   0x9,   238   pages,   illustrated,   $2.00 

"Economics  of  Road  Construction" 

By  HALBERT  P.  GILLETTE. 

Contains  :  Earth  roads  and  earthwork,  Gravel  roads,  Macadam 
roads,  Telford  roads,  Repairs  and  maintenance,  Suggested  improve- 
ments in  existing  road  specifications,  Summary  and  conclusion. 

Cloth,  6x9,  50  pages,  illustrated,  $1.00 

\\'<'.xti'rn  Hoch'ti/  of  Engineers:  "Full  of  meat  for  those  con- 
cerned with  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  highways." 

"The  Law  of  Contract" 

By  ALEXANDER  HARING. 

Written  to  give  the  general  theovv  of  the  law  of  contract,  in 
such  shape  as  to  be  readily  understood  by  engineering  students, 
contractors,  etc. 

Industrial  Engineering  and  Engineering  Digest:  "This  book,  as 
stated  by  the  author  in  his  preface,  is  intended  for  the  use  of 
engineers  and  engineering  students.  It  presents  in  a  condensed 
form  the  law  of  contract,  presenting  the  theory,  while  avoiding 
the  reading  of  a  large  number  of  cases. 

"The  arrangement  of  the  book  is  such  that  the  various  charac- 
teristics of  a  contract  are  separately  discussed,  excerpts  from 
judicial  opinions  bearing  on  these  characteristics  being  appended 
to  each  discussion. 

"In  this  way  a  general  view  of  the  entire  subject  is  obtained. 
The  chapter  headings  are  as  follows:  The  Contract. 

"Its  Inherent  Kleinents,  Its  Formation,  The  Parties  Affected, 
Its  Interpretation,  Its  Discharge." 


THERE  IS  LITTLE  IN 

the  whole  wide  field  of  construction  work  and  civil 
engineering  that  is  not  covered  in 

Gillette's  "COST  DATA" 

Earth  and  rock  excavation,  quarrying  and  crushing,  roads  and 
pavements,  masonry,  plain  and  reinforced  concrete,  water  works, 
sewers,  timber  work,  buildings,  railways,  bridges  and  culverts,  steel 
construction,  engineering  and  surveys,  miscellaneous  cost  data  and 
the  principles  of  engineering  economics. 

1854  pages,  handbook  size  and  binding,  $5.00 

Progressive  Age:  "Invaluable  to  any  engineer  or  contractor 
who  has  to  make  estimates." 

Journal  Western  Society  of  Engineers:  "An  exceedingly  valuable 
amount  of  engineering  experience,  indexed  so  that  any  kind '  of 
information  as  to  cost  of  almost  any  kind  of  construction  can  be 
determined." 


What  to  Use 

under  a  given  set  of  conditions,  is  often  the  biggest  problem  for 
the  general  superintendent  to  solve,  and  the  net  profit  often 
depends  upon  how  he  solves  it. 

Dana's  "CONSTRUCTION  PLANT"  handbook  covers  the  whole 
range  of  machinery  and  tools,  plant  and  equipment  used  in  con- 
struction. Hundreds  of  contractors  have  found  in  "CONSTRUC- 
TION PLANT"  a  complete  epitome  of  plant  information. 

702  pages,  illustrated,  handbook  size  and  binding,  $5.00 

The  National  Builder:  "Valuable  information,  such  as  every  man 
connected  with  the  building,  mechanical,  or  engineering  pursuits 
will  be  sure  to  require." 

Pacific  Builder  and  Engineer:  "The  data  in  this  book  are  in- 
dispensable to  the  constructionist,  whatever  his  particular  field 
may  be." 

Your  Own  "Cost  Data" 

is  the  thing  nearest  your  heart,  showing  you  how  things  are  going 
now,  and  -how  to  estimate  on  the  next  job. 

Gillette  and  Dana  (authors  of  the  two  works  above)  have  made 
a  life  study  of  "COST  KEEPING  AND  MANAGEMENT  ENGI- 
NEERING," and  their  book  by  that  name  is  ranked  with  Taylor's 
"Principles  of  Scientific  Management." 

350   pages,    184   figures,   6x9,    $3.50 

These  three  books  are  indispensable  to  every  contractor  or  en- 
gineer who  pretends  to  keep  up  to  date  on  the  economics  of  con- 
struction work.  This  set  appeals  to  the  estimator,  the  outside 
superintendent,  and  the  engineering  profession  in  general. 

Offered  at  $12.00 

Note  : — These  and  other  books  listed  in  these  pages  are  sent  post- 
paid on  receipt  of  price.  To  members  of  the  Engineering  Societies 
we  forward  for  two  weeks'  inspection,  to  be  purchased  or  re- 
turned in  good  condition,  at  no  cost  except  return  postage. 

Clark  Book  Co.,  Inc.,  27  William  St.,  New  York 


Five  Books  on  Concrete    Complete  Set  for  $18.00 
"Concrete  Construction,  Methods  and  Costs" 

By  GILLETTE  and  HILL  (editors,  "Engineering  and  Contracting.") 
As  the  name  indicates,  this  work  is  for  the  constructor  and 
estimator  on  concrete,  rather  than  for  the  designer.  In  this  re- 
spect it  stands  without  competition.  Nothing  like  it  has  been 
published.  Every  kind  of  concrete,  plain  and  reinforced,  light 
and  heavy  work,  is  treated  completely. 

Cloth,   6x9,   TOO   pages,   illustrated,    $5.00 

"Concrete  and  Reinforced  Concrete  Construction" 

By    HOMER   A.    REID. 

200  working  drawings  of  bridges,  bridge  piers  and  culverts  ;  (50 
of  sewers,  water  mains  and  reservoirs,;  30  each  of  retaining  walls 
and  dams  ;  200  of  buildings  and  foundations. 

Cloth,  6x9,  906  pages,  70  tables,  715  illustrations,   *5.oo 
Manufacturers'  Record:     "A  complete  treatise  on  the  properties 
and   uses   of   concrete  and    rein  forced   concrete    as    applied    to    con- 
struction."  

"Inspection  of  Concrete  Construction" 

*  By  JEROME   COCIIIIAX. 

The  Encyclopedia  Brittauica  of  concrete  for  the  inspector,  su- 
perintendent and  contractor.  Contents  : 

Inspection  of  Hydraulic  Cement ;  Inspection  of  Sand,  Stone,  etc.  ; 
Inspection  of  Proportioning  and  Mixing ;  Inspection  of  Forms, 
Molds,  Centering,  etc.  ;  Inspection  of  Steel  Reinforcement ;  Inspec- 
tion of  Concreting ;  Inspection  of  Surface  Finishes  ;  Inspection  of 
Waterproofing ;  Inspection  of  Sidewalks,  Curbs  and  Pavements ; 
Inspection  of  Ornamental  Work,  Blocks,  etc.  ;  Inspection  of  Mold- 
ing and  Driving  Concrete  Piles :  Definition  of  Terms,  List  of 
Authorities,  Index.  Cloth,  6x  9,  595  pages,  illustrated,  $4.00 

The  Cement  Era:  "By  far  the  most  complete  and  orderly  volume 
on  this  subject  we  have  ever  seen." 

Concrete-Cement  Age:  "Its  11  chapters  do  well  cover  the  whole 
field  of  concrete  inspection,  in  a  form  for  convenient  use  and  ready 
reference." 

"Engineers'  Pocketbook  of  Reinforced  Concrete" 

By    LEE    HEIDEN REICH. 

Here  is  the  "Trautwine"  of  reinforced  concrete.  Divisions  are  : 
Materials  and  Machines,  Design  and  Construction  of  Buildings, 
of  Bridges,  of  Abutments  and  Retaining  WTalls,  Culverts,  Conduits, 
Sewers,  Pipes  and  Dams,  Tanks,  Reservoirs,  Bins  and  Grain 
Elevators,  Chimneys  and  Miscellaneous  Data. 

374  pages,  illustrated,  $3.00 

Architecture  d-  Building:  "This  second  edition  brings  the  book 
up  to  date  with  the  present  developments  of  reinforced  concrete 
construction. 

"Of  great  value  to  the  designer  in   reinforced   concrete.'' 

"Concrete  Bridges  and  Culverts" 

By   H.   G.   TYRRELL. 

A  complete  handbook  on  the  economics  and  design  of  concrete 
bridges,  culverts  and  trestles. 

Contents  are  divided  into:  Plain  concrete  arch  bridges,  Re- 
inforced concrete  arch  bridges,  Highway  beam  bridges,  and  Con- 
crete culverts  and  trestles. 

Handbook  size  and  binding,  L'50  pages,  $3.00 


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FOR  CHARTS  OF  ALL  KINDS.  YOU  CAN  EVEN  MAKE  A  SLIDE  RULE  DIA- 
GRAM OF  IT. 

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PADS    OF    10O    SHEETS.     EACH    AT    S1.OO   A    PAD. 
ALSO   LOGARITHMIC    AND    OTHER    RULINGS. 

CLARK   BOOK  Co.,  INC,,   27  WILLIAM   ST..   NEW  YOR 
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I M     UDOH I 


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